Meropenem derivatives and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides novel derivative of β-lactam antibiotics, such as meropenem. The inventive compounds include compounds of Formula (I), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof. Also provided are particles (e.g., nanoparticles) and pharmaceutical compositions thereof that are mucus penetrating. The inventive particles and pharmaceutical compositions may be useful in delivering an inventive compound to the respiratory tract of a subject. The invention further provides methods of using and kits including the inventive compounds, particles thereof, and/or pharmaceutical compositions thereof for treating and/or preventing a pulmonary disease (e.g., a respiratory tract infection).

RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 15/650,667, filed Jul. 14, 2017, which is a continuation ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/777,018, filed Sep. 15, 2015, nowU.S. Pat. No. 9,725,451, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e)to U.S. Provisional Patent Application 61/789,335, filed Mar. 15, 2013,all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This invention was made with government support under Grant No.1R43HL106899-01 awarded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Instituteof the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rightsin the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Bacterial infection in the lung and its complications are major causesof morbidity and mortality, especially in patients suffering from cysticfibrosis. Current mode of treatments for these infections requiresdelivery of antibiotics to the lung tissue. These delivery techniquesare either invasive and require hospitalization or trained medicalpersonnel (e.g., intravenous or intramuscular injections), suffer frompoor bioavailability (e.g., oral doses), and may have other drawbackssuch as adverse effects associated with systemic drug exposure. Localadministration of therapeutics via inhalation is a preferred mode ofdelivery, since it is non-invasive, convenient, does not requirehospitalization, and reduces systemic exposure and its potential relatedadverse side-effects. However, delivery of therapeutic agents such asantibiotics via inhalation is generally ineffective due to low deliveryefficiency and high clearance. A more effective method for drug deliveryof antibiotics to the lung via inhalation is needed.

Meropenem, a β-lactam antibiotic, is currently one of the most potentantibiotics available for intravenous therapy against a range ofpathogenic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC₉₀ is about 8μg/mL), the most frequent pathogen acquired by subjects with cysticfibrosis with lung airway infections. A conventional pharmaceuticalcomposition of meropenem is not suitable for oral administration becauseof poor absorption. Although meropenem can be developed as an inhalableproduct, its high water solubility (>1 mg/mL) restricts the possiblemeans of administration, such that a nebulized solution is the onlyoption. The dose of therapeutic agent when administered in a nebulizedsolution is limited by its solubility, such that there is a specificmaximum drug load per dose. Dosed as a solution (e.g., by nebulizer) thedrug likely will clear quite rapidly from the lungs into systemiccirculation, leaving limited local exposure in the lungs, and thusfrequent dosing would be required. Furthermore, nebulization is adifficult and time-consuming procedure that, when used chronically(e.g., administered daily for over 30 days), significantly decreasespatient life quality.

Meropenem may benefit from new methods and pharmaceutical compositionsfor inhalational administration, such as development into a dry-powderinhalable (DPI) drug product, which is a preferred mode of therapeuticdelivery over nebulization. Delivery by DPI achieves greater drug loadper dose than that of a nebulized solution. In addition, this deliverymethod circumvents the inconveniences to patients that are associatedwith nebulization. To achieve this, a particle-based formulation ofmeropenem must be developed by producing an improved water-insolubleform and formulation of meropenem. To effectively deliver the drugparticles to the lung tissues, the particles must also overcome themucus barrier. The mucus layer present at various points of entry intothe body, including the eyes, nose, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, andfemale reproductive tract, serves to protect the body against pathogens,allergens, and debris by effectively trapping and quickly removing themvia mucus turnover. For effective delivery of therapeutic particles viamucus membranes, the particles must be able to readily penetrate themucus layer to avoid mucus adhesion and rapid mucus clearance. However,it is often difficult for particles administered via inhalation to bedelivered to a tissue of the respiratory tract (e.g., lung, trachea, orbronchus) in effective amounts due to rapid clearance and/or otherreasons. Thus, new pharmaceutical compositions and formulations todeliver therapeutic agents, such as meropenem, to the lung with a highdrug concentration per dose and effective penetration through the mucusbarrier are needed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Drug delivery to the respiratory tract is especially difficult.Conventional drug delivery methods of water-soluble drugs (e.g., oral orinjectional administration) have many drawbacks. For example, thedelivery of the antibiotic meropenem to the respiratory tract for thetreatment of a bacterial infection (e.g., nosocomial pneumonia, severecommunity-acquired pneumonia, and cystic fibrosis) is difficult, andmeropenem has only been administered intravenously. A conventionalpharmaceutical composition of meropenem is not suitable for oraladministration because an oral dose of meropenem results in poorabsorption. Inhalational administration may be able to effectivelydeliver the therapeutic agent to the target tissue; however, meropenemis a water-soluble drug that could only be locally administered to therespiratory epithelium via nebulization, and it will likely be clearedrapidly from the lungs, thereby requiring frequent and larger dosing. Amore preferred mode of local delivery to the respiratory tract or lungsis via a dry-powder inhalable (DPI) drug product, which would becomprised of a carrier particle-based formulation containing smallerparticles of an insoluble form of meropenem associated with apharmaceutically acceptable carrier particle.

Mucus found in various tissues (e.g., respiratory tract,gastrointestinal tract, eye, genito-urinary tract) of a subject is aviscoelastic and adhesive substance that traps most foreign objects(e.g., microorganisms, particles, dust). For effective drug delivery,particles that are immobilized in the mucus are quickly eliminated bymucus clearance mechanisms; therefore, they are not able to delivertheir payload effectively. For a particle to effectively deliver thepayload, it must quickly penetrate the mucus and/or avoid mucusclearance mechanisms. Accordingly, modifying mucoadhesive materials witha coating to reduce the mucoadhesiveness of the particle, and decreasingthe size of the particle to below that of the mucus gel pore may allowfor efficient delivery of the particles.

The present invention successfully addresses the problems associatedwith formulating and delivering meropenem and other β-lactam antibioticsto the respiratory system of a subject for the treatment of variousrespiratory tract infections. In one aspect, the present invention firstprovides novel water-insoluble derivatives of β-lactam antibiotics, suchas derivatives of meropenem (1).

In certain embodiments, the invention provides compounds of Formula (I):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs,co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeledderivatives thereof, wherein R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), and R^(F) are asdescribed herein. Compared to the parent β-lactam antibiotics, theinventive derivatives may show lower hydrophilicity and/or aqueoussolubility. The derivatives, when administered in a conventionalpharmaceutical composition to a subject, may show improvedbioavailability (e.g., oral bioavailability) than the parent β-lactamantibiotics. Moreover, the derivative may be more easily processed intomucus-penetrating particles (MPPs) and/or mucus-penetrating crystals(MPCs) suitable for inhalational administration to the respiratory tractof the subject. These advantages of the derivatives over the parentβ-lactam antibiotics may be attributed to the lower hydrophilicityand/or aqueous solubility of the derivative. In certain embodiments, theinventive compounds are crystalline. The derivatives are typicallyconverted in vivo to provide the parent β-lactam antibiotic. Aparticular example of a compound of the invention is a compound ofFormula (I-A-1):

and solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers,stereoisomers, and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof. In vivo thecompound of Formula (I-A-1) hydrolyzes to yield the parent antibioticmeropenem. In one aspect, the compound of Formula (I-A-1) iscrystalline. In another aspect, the present invention provides methodsof preparing the inventive compounds. The inventive compounds may besynthesized by acylating the polar moieties (e.g., amino and carboxylgroups) of a β-lactam antibiotic to yield a product that is morehydrophobic than the parent β-lactam antibiotic. In certain embodiments,the methods of preparing the inventive compounds include reacting acompound of Formula (i-A), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, orisotopically labeled derivative thereof, with a compound of Formula(i-B) to provide a compound of Formula (i-C), or a salt, tautomer,stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivative thereof:

reacting the compound of Formula (i-C), or the salt, tautomer,stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivative thereof, in thepresence of a base with a compound of Formula (i-D) to provide thecompound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutical acceptable salt, tautomer,stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivative thereof:

In another aspect, the present invention provides particles comprising acompound of Formula (I). In one aspect, the present invention providesparticles comprising a compound of Formula (I) that is crystalline. Incertain embodiments, the particles are mucus penetrating. The particlesof the invention may include a coating surrounding a core. The core maycontain primarily a compound of the invention, or the core may be apolymeric core with the compound encapsulated in the polymer. In certainembodiments, the inventive particles of a compound of invention arenanoparticles (e.g., particles having an average diameter of at leastabout 10 nm and less than about 1 μm). The inventive particles may beuseful in delivering the pharmaceutical agent to a subject. In certainembodiments, the particles of the invention are capable of deliveringthe pharmaceutical agent to the respiratory tract of a subject. In someembodiments, the inventive particles comprising a compound of theinvention are associated with larger carrier particles in a DPI drugproduct. Therefore, the inventive particles (whether administereddirectly or in association with larger carrier particles in a DPI drugproduct that delivers the inventive particles to the lung), bypenetrating the mucus of the respiratory tract and delivering thepharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention) thereto, may beuseful in treating a respiratory tract disease.

Another aspect of the invention relates to pharmaceutical compositionscomprising an inventive compound and/or a plurality of inventiveparticles. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions areuseful in delivering a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of theinvention) to a subject. The inventive pharmaceutical compositions mayalso be useful in treating and/or preventing a respiratory tract diseaseof a subject, such as a respiratory tract infection (e.g., influenza,bronchitis, or pneumonia).

Another aspect of the invention relates to pharmaceutical compositionsfor delivery by a dry powder inhaler, wherein the pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises an inhalable dry powder comprising a plurality ofinventive particles that are mucus penetrating, and pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier particles.

In another aspect, the present invention provides kits comprising aninventive compound, a plurality of inventive particles, and/or aninventive pharmaceutical composition. The kits of the invention mayfurther include instructions or prescribing information foradministering the compound, particles, or pharmaceutical composition toa subject.

Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of treating and/orpreventing a respiratory tract disease in a subject in need thereof. Incertain embodiments, the respiratory disease being treated and/orprevented is an upper respiratory tract disease (e.g., influenza). Incertain embodiments, the respiratory disease being treated and/orprevented is a lower respiratory tract disease (e.g., a pulmonarydisease). In certain embodiments, the pulmonary disease being treatedand/or prevented is a pulmonary disease (e.g., cystic fibrosis or apulmonary infection, such as pneumonia). In some embodiments, thesubject is a human. In some embodiments, the subject is a human withcystic fibrosis and a pulmonary infection.

Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of increasing thedelivery of a compound of the invention to a tissue (e.g., therespiratory tract) of a subject.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods ofincreasing the coverage uniformity of the inventive particles over thesurface of a target tissue of the respiratory tract. The presentinvention also provides methods of increasing the coverage uniformity ofa pharmaceutical agent over the surface of a target tissue of therespiratory tract, wherein the pharmaceutical agent is included ininventive particles.

Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of increasing theconcentration of a compound of the invention in a tissue (e.g., therespiratory tract) of a subject. Another aspect of the invention relatesto methods of increasing the duration time of a compound of theinvention in the respiratory tract of a subject.

In certain embodiments, the inventive methods include administering to asubject a compound, particle, and/or pharmaceutical composition of theinvention. In certain embodiments, the compound, particle, orpharmaceutical composition is administered inhalationally. In certainembodiments, the compound or particles comprising compound is formulatedto be mucus-penetrating. In another embodiment, the pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises compound or particles comprising compound that aremucus-penetrating.

The details of particular embodiments of the invention are set forthherein. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will beapparent from the Detailed Description, the Figures, the Examples, andthe Claims.

Definitions

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms aredescribed in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified inaccordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version,Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75th Ed., inside cover, and specificfunctional groups are generally defined as described therein.Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well asspecific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in ThomasSorrell, Organic Chemistry, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999;Smith and March, March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition, JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive OrganicTransformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers,Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3rd Edition, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 1987.

Compounds of the invention can comprise one or more asymmetric centers,and thus can exist in various isomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/ordiastereomers. For example, the compounds of the invention can be in theform of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, orcan be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemicmixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers canbe isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art,including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and theformation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers canbe prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al.,Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York,1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, Stereochemistryof Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, N Y, 1962); and Wilen, Tables ofResolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p. 268 (E. L. Eliel, Ed., Univ.of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). The invention additionallyencompasses compounds of the invention as individual isomerssubstantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures ofvarious isomers.

When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each valueand sub-range within the range. For example “C₁₋₆” is intended toencompass, C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C₁₋₆, C₁₋₅, C₁₋₄, C₁₋₃, C₁₋₂, C₂₋₆,C₂₋₅, C₂₋₄, C₂₋₃, C₃₋₆, C₃₋₅, C₃₋₄, C₄₋₆, C₄₋₅, and C₅₋₆.

The term “aliphatic”, as used herein, includes both saturated andunsaturated, straight chain (i.e., unbranched), branched, acyclic,cyclic, or polycyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons, which are optionallysubstituted with one or more functional groups. As will be appreciatedby one of ordinary skill in the art, “aliphatic” is intended herein toinclude, but is not limited to, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl,cycloalkenyl, and cycloalkynyl moieties.

The term “heteroaliphatic”, as used herein, refers to aliphatic moietiesthat contain one or more heteroatoms (e.g., oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen,phosphorus, and silicon) in place of carbon atoms. For example, a C₁₋₁₂heteroaliphatic moiety includes 1-12 carbon atoms and at least oneheteroatom. A heteroaliphatic moiety may also be saturated orunsaturated and may include any number of unsaturated bonds (e.g.,double and triple bonds) as valency permits.

Heteroaliphatic moieties may be branched, unbranched, cyclic or acyclicand include saturated and unsaturated heterocycles such as morpholino,pyrrolidinyl, etc. In certain embodiments, heteroaliphatic moieties aresubstituted by independent replacement of one or more of the hydrogenatoms thereon with one or more moieties including, but not limited toaliphatic; heteroaliphatic; aryl; heteroaryl; arylalkyl;heteroarylalkyl; alkoxy; aryloxy; heteroalkoxy; heteroaryloxy;alkylthio; arylthio; heteroalkylthio; heteroarylthio; —F; —Cl; —Br; —I;—OH; —NO₂; —CN; —CF₃; —CH₂CF₃; —CHCl₂; —CH₂OH; —CH₂CH₂OH; —CH₂NH₂;—CH₂SO₂CH₃; —C(O)R_(x); —CO₂(R_(x)); —CON(R_(x))₂; —OC(O)R_(x);—OCO₂R_(x); —OCON(R_(x))₂; —N(R_(x))₂; —S(O)₂R_(x); —NR_(x)(CO)R_(x),wherein each occurrence of R_(x) independently includes, but is notlimited to, aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aryl, heteroaryl, arylalkyl, orheteroarylalkyl, wherein any of the aliphatic, heteroaliphatic,arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl substituents described above and hereinmay be substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched, cyclic oracyclic, and wherein any of the aryl or heteroaryl substituentsdescribed above and herein may be substituted or unsubstituted.Additional examples of generally applicable substituents are illustratedby the specific embodiments shown in the Examples that are describedherein.

“Alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched saturatedhydrocarbon group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂₀ alkyl”). Insome embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₁₀alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms(“C₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbonatoms (“C₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7carbon atoms (“C₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1to 6 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl grouphas 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkylgroup has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments, analkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₃ alkyl”). In some embodiments,an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂ alkyl”). In someembodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C₁ alkyl”). In someembodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkyl”).Examples of C₁₋₆ alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), n-propyl(C₃), isopropyl (C₃), n-butyl (C₄), tert-butyl (C₄), sec-butyl (C₄),iso-butyl (C₄), n-pentyl (C₅), 3-pentanyl (C₅), amyl (C₅), neopentyl(C₅), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C₅), tertiary amyl (C₅), and n-hexyl (C₆).Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈)and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkylgroup is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with oneor more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkyl group isunsubstituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (e.g., —CH₃). In certain embodiments, thealkyl group is substituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl.

“Alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branchedhydrocarbon group having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms, one or morecarbon-carbon double bonds, and no triple bonds (“C₂₋₂₀ alkenyl”). Insome embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₁₀alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms(“C₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenylgroup has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, analkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In someembodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkenyl”).In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂alkenyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal(such as in 2-butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples ofC₂₋₄ alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C₂), 1-propenyl (C₃), 2-propenyl(C₃), 1-butenyl (C₄), 2-butenyl (C₄), butadienyl (C₄), and the like.Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkenylgroups as well as pentenyl (C₅), pentadienyl (C₅), hexenyl (C₆), and thelike. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C₇), octenyl(C₈), octatrienyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, eachinstance of an alkenyl group is independently optionally substituted,i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a“substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the alkenyl group is unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. Incertain embodiments, the alkenyl group is substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl.

“Alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branchedhydrocarbon group having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms, one or morecarbon-carbon triple bonds, and optionally one or more double bonds(“C₂₋₂₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 10carbon atoms (“C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl grouphas 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, analkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkynyl”). In someembodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkynyl”).In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms(“C₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynylgroup has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkynyl”). The one or more carbon-carbontriple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) or terminal (such asin 1-butynyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups include, withoutlimitation, ethynyl (C₂), 1-propynyl (C₃), 2-propynyl (C₃), 1-butynyl(C₄), 2-butynyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groupsinclude the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C₅),hexynyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl includeheptynyl (C₇), octynyl (C₅), and the like. Unless otherwise specified,each instance of an alkynyl group is independently optionallysubstituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) orsubstituted (a “substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. Incertain embodiments, the alkynyl group is unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

“Carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non-aromaticcyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non-aromatic ring system. Insome embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms(“C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, acarbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). Insome embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms(“C₅₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups include,without limitation, cyclopropyl (C₃), cyclopropenyl (C₃), cyclobutyl(C₄), cyclobutenyl (C₄), cyclopentyl (C₅), cyclopentenyl (C₅),cyclohexyl (C₆), cyclohexenyl (C₆), cyclohexadienyl (C₆), and the like.Exemplary C_(3-s) carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, theaforementioned C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇),cycloheptenyl (C₇), cycloheptadienyl (C₇), cycloheptatrienyl (C₇),cyclooctyl (C₅), cyclooctenyl (C₅), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C₇),bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C₅), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclylgroups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₈ carbocyclylgroups as well as cyclononyl (C₉), cyclononenyl (C₉), cyclodecyl (C₁₀),cyclodecenyl (C₁₀), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C₉), decahydronaphthalenyl(C₁₀), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C₁₀), and the like. As the foregoing examplesillustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is eithermonocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or contain a fused, bridged orspiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) andcan be saturated or can be partially unsaturated. “Carbocyclyl” alsoincludes ring systems wherein the carbocyclic ring, as defined above, isfused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point ofattachment is on the carbocyclic ring, and in such instances, the numberof carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in thecarbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of acarbocyclyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e.,unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the carbocyclyl group is unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl.In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl.

In some embodiments, “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturatedcarbocyclyl group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ringcarbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkylgroup has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In someembodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₆cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ringcarbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ cycloalkyl”). Examples of C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl groupsinclude cyclopentyl (C₅) and cyclohexyl (C₅). Examples of C₃₋₆cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl groups aswell as cyclopropyl (C₃) and cyclobutyl (C₄). Examples of C₃₋₈cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups aswell as cycloheptyl (C₇) and cyclooctyl (C₅). Unless otherwisespecified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independentlyunsubstituted (an “unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a“substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the cycloalkyl group is unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀ cycloalkyl. Incertain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is substituted C₃₋₁₀cycloalkyl.

“Heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3- to10-membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected fromnitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, boron, phosphorus, and silicon (“3-10 memberedheterocyclyl”). In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogenatoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, asvalency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic(“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or a fused, bridged, or spiro ring systemsuch as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”), and can besaturated or can be partially unsaturated. Heterocyclyl bicyclic ringsystems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings.“Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclic ring,as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups whereinthe point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclicring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclic ring, as defined above,is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the pointof attachment is on the heterocyclic ring, and in such instances, thenumber of ring members continue to designate the number of ring membersin the heterocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, eachinstance of heterocyclyl is independently optionally substituted, i.e.,unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a“substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certainembodiments, the heterocyclyl group is unsubstituted 3-10 memberedheterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group issubstituted 3-10 membered heterocyclyl.

In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-10 memberednon-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ringheteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected fromnitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, boron, phosphorus, and silicon (“5-10 memberedheterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-8membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ringheteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected fromnitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heterocyclyl”). In someembodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-6 membered non-aromatic ringsystem having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein eachheteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur(“5-6 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 memberedheterocyclyl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen,and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-2ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In someembodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has one ring heteroatomselected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Exemplary 3-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatominclude, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, thiorenyl. Exemplary4-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include,without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl and thietanyl. Exemplary5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include,without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl,tetrahydrothiophenyl, dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyland pyrrolyl-2,5-dione. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groupscontaining two heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl,oxasulfuranyl, disulfuranyl, and oxazolidin-2-one. Exemplary 5-memberedheterocyclyl groups containing three heteroatoms include, withoutlimitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl. Exemplary6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include,without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl,and thianyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing twoheteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl,dithianyl, dioxanyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containingtwo heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinanyl. Exemplary7-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include,without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl and thiepanyl. Exemplary8-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include,without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl and thiocanyl. Exemplary5-membered heterocyclyl groups fused to a C₆ aryl ring (also referred toherein as a 5,6-bicyclic heterocyclic ring) include, without limitation,indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl,benzoxazolinonyl, and the like. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groupsfused to an aryl ring (also referred to herein as a 6,6-bicyclicheterocyclic ring) include, without limitation, tetrahydroquinolinyl,tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, and the like.

“Aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclicor tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 pielectrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbon atoms andzero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C₆₋₁₄ aryl”). Insome embodiments, an aryl group has six ring carbon atoms (“C₆ aryl”;e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has ten ring carbonatoms (“C₁₀ aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and 2-naphthyl). Insome embodiments, an aryl group has fourteen ring carbon atoms (“C₁₄aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein thearyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl orheterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on thearyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue todesignate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unlessotherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independentlyoptionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) orsubstituted (a “substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. Incertain embodiments, the aryl group is unsubstituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl. Incertain embodiments, the aryl group is substituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl.

“Aralkyl” is a subset of alkyl and aryl, as defined herein, and refersto an optionally substituted alkyl group substituted by an optionallysubstituted aryl group. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl isoptionally substituted benzyl. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl isbenzyl. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl is optionally substitutedphenethyl. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl is phenethyl.

“Heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-10 membered monocyclic orbicyclic 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6 or 10 p electronsshared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ringheteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein eachheteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur(“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one ormore nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogenatom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl bicyclic ring systems can includeone or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ringsystems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with oneor more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point ofattachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the numberof ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in theheteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems whereinthe heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more arylgroups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl orheteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring membersdesignates the number of ring members in the fused (aryl/heteroaryl)ring system. Bicyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does notcontain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and thelike) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either thering bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does notcontain a heteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl).

In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-10 membered aromatic ringsystem having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In someembodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-8 membered aromatic ring systemhaving ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heteroaryl”). In someembodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-6 membered aromatic ring systemhaving ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in thearomatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selectedfrom nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heteroaryl”). In someembodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-3 ring heteroatomsselected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6membered heteroaryl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen,oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unlessotherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group isindependently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an“unsubstituted heteroaryl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroaryl”)with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroarylgroup is unsubstituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments,the heteroaryl group is substituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl.

Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatominclude, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl and thiophenyl. Exemplary5-membered heteroaryl groups containing two heteroatoms include, withoutlimitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, andisothiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing threeheteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, andthiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing fourheteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary6-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, withoutlimitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containingtwo heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl,and pyrazinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing threeor four heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl andtetrazinyl, respectively. Exemplary 7-membered heteroaryl groupscontaining one heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl,oxepinyl, and thiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groupsinclude, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl,benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl,benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl,benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl,indolizinyl, and purinyl. Exemplary 6,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groupsinclude, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl,isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl.

“Heteroaralkyl” is a subset of alkyl and heteroaryl, as defined herein,and refers to an optionally substituted alkyl group substituted by anoptionally substituted heteroaryl group.

“Partially unsaturated” refers to a group that includes at least onedouble or triple bond. A “partially unsaturated” ring system is furtherintended to encompass rings having multiple sites of unsaturation, butis not intended to include aromatic groups (e.g., aryl or heteroarylgroups) as herein defined. Likewise, “saturated” refers to a group thatdoes not contain a double or triple bond, i.e., contains all singlebonds.

Alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroarylgroups, as defined herein, which are divalent bridging groups arefurther referred to using the suffix-ene, e.g., alkylene, alkenylene,alkynylene, carbocyclylene, heterocyclylene, arylene, and heteroarylene.

As used herein, the term “optionally substituted” refers to substitutedor unsubstituted.

Alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroarylgroups, as defined herein, are optionally substituted (e.g.,“substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted”alkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkynyl, “substituted” or“unsubstituted” carbocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted”heterocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or “substituted” or“unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term “substituted”,whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, means that at leastone hydrogen present on a group (e.g., a carbon or nitrogen atom) isreplaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which uponsubstitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which doesnot spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement,cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated,a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutablepositions of the group, and when more than one position in any givenstructure is substituted, the substituent is either the same ordifferent at each position. The term “substituted” is contemplated toinclude substitution with all permissible substituents of organiccompounds, any of the substituents described herein that results in theformation of a stable compound. The present invention contemplates anyand all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. Forpurposes of this invention, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may havehydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as describedherein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in theformation of a stable moiety.

Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to,halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(aa), —ON(R^(bb))₂,—N(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(cc))R^(bb), —SH, —SR^(aa),—SSR^(cc), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂H, —CHO, —C(OR^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa),—OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂,—NR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), —N^(Rbb)CO₂R^(aa), —NR^(bb)OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂,—C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))R^(aa),—OC(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂,—NR^(bb)C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa),—NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂N(R^(bb))₂, —SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂OR^(aa), —OSO₂R^(aa),—S(═O)R^(aa), —OS(═O)R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃,—OSi(R^(aa))₃—C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═S)SR^(aa),—SC(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)SR^(aa), —OC(═O)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)OR^(aa),—SC(═O)R^(aa), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —OP(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂,—OP(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂,—OP(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂—OP(═O)(NR^(bb))₂,—NR^(bb)P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —P(R^(cc))₂,—P(R^(cc))₃, —OP(R^(cc))₂, —OP(R^(cc))₃, —B(R^(aa))₂, —B(OR^(cc))₂,—BR^(aa)(OR^(cc)), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independentlysubstituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group═O, ═S, ═NN(R^(bb))₂, ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)OR^(aa),∪NNR^(bb)S(═O)₂R^(aa), ═NR^(bb), or ═NOR^(cc); each instance of R^(aa)is, independently, selected from C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl,C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(aa) groups arejoined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroarylring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl,aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or5 R^(dd) groups; each instance of R^(bb) is, independently, selectedfrom hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂—CN, —C(═O)R^(aa),—C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa),—C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc),—SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc),—P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂, —P(═O)(NRC)₂, C₁₋₁₀alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl, or two R^(bb) groups are joined to form a 3-14 memberedheterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl isindependently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(cc) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₁₀alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups are joined to form a 3-14 memberedheterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl,alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl isindependently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(dd) is, independently, selected from halogen, —CN,—NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(ee), —ON(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₂,—N(R^(ff))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(ee))R^(ff), —SH, —SR^(ee), —SSR^(ee),—C(═O)R^(ee), —CO₂H, —CO₂R^(ee), —OC(═O)R^(ee), —OCO₂R^(ee),—C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═O)R^(ee),—NR^(ff)CO₂R^(ee), —NR^(ff)C(═O)N(RE)₂, —C(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee),—OC(═NR^(ff))R^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), —C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂,—OC(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ee)C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂,—NR^(ff)SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂N(R^(ff))₂, —SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂OR^(ee), —OSO₂R^(ee),—S(═O)R^(ee), —Si(R^(ee))₃, —OSi(R^(ee))₃, —C(═S)N(R^(ff))₂,—C(═O)SR^(ee), —C(═S)SR^(ee), —SC(═S)SR^(ee), —P(═O)₂R^(ee),—P(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(ee))₂, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, whereineach alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, andheteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg)groups, or two geminal R^(dd) substituents can be joined to form ═O or═S;

each instance of R^(ee) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl,C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10 membered heteroaryl, whereineach alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, andheteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg)groups;

each instance of R^(ff) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl,3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, ortwo R^(ff) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independentlysubstituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups; and

each instance of R^(gg) is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃,—SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —ON(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂,—N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃ ⁺X⁻, —NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂ ⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃⁺X⁻, —N(OC₁₋₆ alkyl)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(OH)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH,—SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SS(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C₁₋₆alkyl), —OC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OCO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C₁₋₆alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(C₁₋₆alkyl)C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHCO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂,—NHC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C₁₋₆alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C₁₋₆alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(NH)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl),—OC(NH)NH₂, —NHC(NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═NH)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl),—SO₂N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl,—SO₂₀C₁₋₆ alkyl, —OSO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SOC₁₋₆ alkyl, —Si(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃,—OSi(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃-C(═S)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), C(═S)NH₂,—C(═O)S(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SC(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —P(═O)₂(C₁₋₆alkyl), —P(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC₁₋₆alkyl)₂, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl,C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 memberedheteroaryl; or two geminal R^(gg) substituents can be joined to form ═Oor ═S; wherein X⁻ is a counterion.

The term “counterion” refers to an anionic or cationic counterion. An“anionic counterion” is a negatively charged atom or group associatedwith a cationic atom or group in order to maintain electronicneutrality. Exemplary anionic counterions include halide anions (e.g.,F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, and I⁻), NO₃ ⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, OH⁻, H₂PO₄ ⁻, HSO₄ ⁻, sulfonateanions (e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate,p-toluenesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, 10-camphor sulfonate,naphthalene-2-sulfonate, naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid-5-sulfonate,ethan-1-sulfonic acid-2-sulfonate, and the like), and carboxylate anions(e.g., acetate, ethanoate, propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate,tartrate, glycolate, and the like). A “cationic counterion” is apositively charged atom or group associated with an anionic atom orgroup in order to maintain electronic neutrality. Exemplary cationiccounterions include inorganic cations (e.g., metal cations (e.g., alkalimetal cations, alkali earth metal cations, and transition metalcations)) and organic cations (e.g., ammonium cations, sulfoniumcations, phosphonium cations, and pyridinium cations). A counterion maybe monovalent, divalent, trivalent, tetravalent, pentavalent, orhexavalent.

“Halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro, —F), chlorine (chloro,—Cl), bromine (bromo, —Br), or iodine (iodo, —I).

“Acyl” as used herein refers to a moiety selected from the groupconsisting of —C(═O)R^(aa), —CHO, —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂,—C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂,—C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), or—C(═S)SR^(aa), wherein R^(aa) and R^(bb) are as defined herein.

Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits,and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarternary nitrogenatoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substituents include, but are not limitedto, hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa),—C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa),—C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc),—SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc),—P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂,C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups attached to a nitrogen atom are joinedto form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring,wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl,and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc), and R^(dd) are asdefined above.

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a nitrogen atom is anitrogen protecting group (also referred to as an amino protectinggroup). Nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —OH,—OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa),—SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa),—C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc),—SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl(e.g., aralkyl, heteroaralkyl), C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 memberedheteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl,heterocyclyl, aralkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substitutedwith 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb),R^(cc) and R^(dd) are as defined herein. Nitrogen protecting groups arewell known in the art and include those described in detail inProtecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts,3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein byreference.

For example, nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g.,—C(═O)R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide,chloroacetamide, trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide,phenylacetamide, 3-phenylpropanamide, picolinamide,3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide,p-phenylbenzamide, o-nitophenylacetamide, o-nitrophenoxyacetamide,acetoacetamide, (N′-dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide,3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3-(o-nitrophenyl)propanamide,2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propanamide,2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4-chlorobutanamide,3-methyl-3-nitrobutanamide, o-nitrocinnamide, N-acetylmethioninederivative, o-nitrobenzamide, and o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g.,—C(═O)OR^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethylcarbamante, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc),9-(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluoroenylmethylcarbamate,2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methylcarbamate (DBD-Tmoc), 4-methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc),2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbamate(Teoc), 2-phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methylethylcarbamate (Adpoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl carbamate,1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl carbamate (DB-t-BOC),1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (TCBOC),1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc),1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (t-Bumeoc), 2-(2′- and4′-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethylcarbamate, t-butyl carbamate (BOC), 1-adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinylcarbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1-isopropylallyl carbamate(Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4-nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc),8-quinolyl carbamate, N-hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithiocarbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p-methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz),p-nitobenzyl carbamate, p-bromobenzyl carbamate, p-chlorobenzylcarbamate, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4-methylsulfinylbenzylcarbamate (Msz), 9-anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate,2-methylthioethyl carbamate, 2-methylsulfonylethyl carbamate,2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methylcarbamate (Dmoc), 4-methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc),2,4-dimethylthiophenyl carbamate (Bmpc), 2-phosphonioethyl carbamate(Peoc), 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc),1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl carbamate, m-chloro-p-acyloxybenzyl carbamate,p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate,2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m-nitrophenylcarbamate, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o-nitrobenzyl carbamate,3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methylcarbamate, t-amyl carbamate, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzylcarbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentylcarbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p-decyloxybenzyl carbamate,2,2-dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzylcarbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate,1,1-dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2-pyridyl)methyl carbamate,2-furanylmethyl carbamate, 2-iodoethyl carbamate, isoborynl carbamate,isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate,p-(p′-methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclobutyl carbamate,1-methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl carbamate,1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate,1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-phenylethylcarbamate, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate,p-(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl carbamate,4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzylcarbamate.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g.,—S(═O)₂R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide(Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide(Mtr), 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb),2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme),2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte),4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide(Mts), 2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds),2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonamide (Pme), methanesulfonamide(Ms), β-trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9-anthracenesulfonamide,4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS),benzylsulfonamide, trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.

Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,phenothiazinyl-(10)-acyl derivative, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminoacylderivative, N′-phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N-benzoylphenylalanylderivative, N-acetylmethionine derivative,4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one, N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinimide (Dts),N-2,3-diphenylmaleimide, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrole,N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE),5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted1,3-dibenzyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted3,5-dinitro-4-pyridone, N-methylamine, N-allylamine,N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N-3-acetoxypropylamine,N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyroolin-3-yl)amine, quaternary ammoniumsalts, N-benzylamine, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methylamine,N-5-dibenzosuberylamine, N-triphenylmethylamine (Tr),N-[(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl]amine (MMTr),N-9-phenylfluorenylamine (PhF),N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethyleneamine, N-ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm),N-2-picolylamino N′-oxide, N-1,1-dimethylthiomethyleneamine,N-benzylideneamine, N-p-methoxybenzylideneamine,N-diphenylmethyleneamine, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine,N-(N′,N′-dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N′-isopropylidenediamine,N-p-nitrobenzylideneamine, N-salicylideneamine,N-5-chlorosalicylideneamine,N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine,N-cyclohexylideneamine, N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)amine,N-borane derivative, N-diphenylborinic acid derivative,N-[phenyl(pentaacylchromium- or tungsten)acyl]amine, N-copper chelate,N-zinc chelate, N-nitroamine, N-nitrosoamine, amine N-oxide,diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp), dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt),diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl phosphoramidates, dibenzylphosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate, benzenesulfenamide,o-nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenamide,pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenamide,triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3-nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is anoxygen protecting group (also referred to as a hydroxyl protectinggroup). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,—R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa),—C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa),—C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃,—P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂,—P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, whereinR^(aa) R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Oxygen protectinggroups are well known in the art and include those described in detailin Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M.Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein byreference.

Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to,methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t-butylthiomethyl,(phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM),p-methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p-AOM),guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t-butoxymethyl, 4-pentenyloxymethyl (POM),siloxymethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl,bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR),tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3-bromotetrahydropyranyl,tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1-methoxycyclohexyl, 4-methoxytetrahydropyranyl(MTHP), 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranylS,S-dioxide, 1-[(2-chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl(CTMP), 1,4-dioxan-2-yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl,2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl,1-ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-methoxyethyl,1-methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl,2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(phenylselenyl)ethyl,t-butyl, allyl, p-chlorophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2,4-dinitrophenyl,benzyl (Bn), p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl,p-nitrobenzyl, p-halobenzyl, 2,6-dichlorobenzyl, p-cyanobenzyl,p-phenylbenzyl, 2-picolyl, 4-picolyl, 3-methyl-2-picolyl N-oxido,diphenylmethyl, p,p′-dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-dibenzosuberyl,triphenylmethyl, α-naphthyldiphenylmethyl,p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl,tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl,4,4′,4″-tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl,4,4′,4″-tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl,4,4′,4″-tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl,3-(imidazol-1-yl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl,1,1-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-anthryl,9-(9-phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl,1,3-benzodisulfuran-2-yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S-dioxido, trimethylsilyl(TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS),dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS),dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butyldiphenylsilyl(TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl,diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate,benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate,trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate,triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p-chlorophenoxyacetate,3-phenylpropionate, 4-oxopentanoate (levulinate),4,4-(ethylenedithio)pentanoate (levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate,adamantoate, crotonate, 4-methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p-phenylbenzoate,2,4,6-trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), alkyl methyl carbonate,9-fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), alkyl ethyl carbonate, alkyl2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate(TMSEC), 2-(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec),2-(triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), alkyl isobutylcarbonate, alkyl vinyl carbonate alkyl allyl carbonate, alkylp-nitrophenyl carbonate, alkyl benzyl carbonate, alkyl p-methoxybenzylcarbonate, alkyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, alkyl o-nitrobenzylcarbonate, alkyl p-nitrobenzyl carbonate, alkyl S-benzyl thiocarbonate,4-ethoxy-1-napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2-iodobenzoate,4-azidobutyrate, 4-nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(dibromomethyl)benzoate,2-formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl,4-(methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate,2,6-dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate,2,6-dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate,2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate,isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)-2-methyl-2-butenoate,o-(methoxyacyl)benzoate, α-naphthoate, nitrate, alkylN,N,N′,N′-tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N-phenylcarbamate,borate, dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenate,sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate(Ts).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a sulfur atom is asulfur protecting group (also referred to as a thiol protecting group).Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa),—N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂,—C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂,—S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃,—P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and—P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as definedherein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and includethose described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T.W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999,incorporated herein by reference.

The term “electron withdrawing group” refers to an atom (including ionicand isotopic forms of the atom) or a group of a compound that reducesthe electron density from a nearby atom and/or group of the compound.The nearby atom and/or chemical group may be directly attached to theelectron withdrawing group or may be attached to the electronwithdrawing group through one or more atoms and/or groups. An electronwithdrawing group may reduce the electron density of a nearby atomand/or group through conjugation, hyperconjugation and/or induction. Anelectron withdrawing group may comprise one or more electronegativeatoms, unsaturated bonds, and/or formal positive charge. Examples ofelectron withdrawing groups are well known in the art, such as thoselisted in Advanced Organic Chemistry, J. March, 4^(th) Ed.; John Wiley &Sons, New York; 1992. For example, electron withdrawing groups include,but are not limited to, halogen, partially or fully halogenatedaliphatic, partially or fully halogenated carbocyclyl, —N(R^(hh))₃ ⁺,—CN, —NO₂, —C(═NR^(hh))R^(hh), —C(═NR^(hh))OR^(hh),—C(═NR^(hh))N(R^(hh))₂, —C(═O)R^(hh), —C(═O)OR^(hh), —C(═O)N(R^(hh))₂,—S(═O)R^(hh), —S(═O)OR^(hh), —S(═O)N(R^(hh))₂, —S(═O)₂R^(hh),—S(═O)₂OR^(hh), —S(═O)₂N(R^(hh))₂, —OS(═O)R^(hh), —OS(═O)OR^(hh),—OS(═O)N(R^(hh))₂, —OS(═O)₂R^(hh), —OS(═O)₂OR^(hh), and—OS(═O)₂N(R^(hh))₂, wherein each instance of R^(hh) is independentlyR^(aa) as described herein, substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic,substituted or unsubstituted heteroaliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl. Examples of electron withdrawing groups also include arylsubstituted with one or more substituents and heteroaryl substitutedwith one or more substituents, wherein at least one of the one or moresubstituents is halogen, partially or fully halogenated aliphatic,partially or fully halogenated carbocyclyl, —N(R^(hh))₃+, —CN, —NO₂,—C(═NR^(hh))R^(hh), —C(═NR^(hh))OR^(hh), —C(═NR^(hh))N(R^(hh))₂,—C(═O)R^(hh), —C(═O)OR^(hh), —C(═O)N(R^(hh))₂, —S(═O)R^(hh),—S(═O)OR^(hh), —S(═O)N(R^(hh))₂, —S(═O)₂R^(hh), —S(═O)₂OR^(hh),—S(═O)₂N(R^(hh))₂, —OS(═O)R^(hh), —OS(═O)OR^(hh), —OS(═O)N(R^(hh))₂,—OS(═O)₂R^(hh), —OS(═O)₂OR^(hh), or —OS(═O)₂N(R^(hh))₂, wherein eachinstance of R^(hh) is as described herein.

As used herein, the term “leaving group” is given its ordinary meaningin the art of synthetic organic chemistry and refers to an atom or agroup capable of being displaced by a nucleophile. Examples of suitableleaving groups include, but are not limited to, halogen (such as F, Cl,Br, or I (iodine)), alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy,alkanesulfonyloxy, arenesulfonyloxy, alkyl-carbonyloxy (e.g., acetoxy),arylcarbonyloxy, aryloxy, methoxy, N,O-dimethylhydroxylamino, pixyl, andhaloformates. In some cases, the leaving group is a sulfonic acid ester,such as toluenesulfonate (tosylate, —OTs), methanesulfonate (mesylate,—OMs), p-bromobenzenesulfonyloxy (brosylate, —OBs), ortrifluoromethanesulfonate (triflate, —OTf). In some cases, the leavinggroup is a brosylate, such asp-bromobenzenesulfonyloxy. In some cases,the leaving group is a nosylate, such as 2-nitrobenzenesulfonyloxy. Insome embodiments, the leaving group is a sulfonate-containing group. Insome embodiments, the leaving group is a tosylate group. The leavinggroup may also be a phosphineoxide (e.g., formed during a Mitsunobureaction) or an internal leaving group such as an epoxide or cyclicsulfate. Other non-limiting examples of leaving groups are water,ammonia, alcohols, ether moieties, thioether moieties, zinc halides,magnesium moieties, diazonium salts, and copper moieties.

These and other exemplary substituents are described in more detail inthe Detailed Description, Figures, Examples, and Claims. The inventionis not intended to be limited in any manner by the above exemplarylisting of substituents.

Other Definitions

The following definitions are more general terms used throughout thepresent application:

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” means that whichis, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use incontact with the tissues of humans and lower animals without unduetoxicity, irritation, allergic response, and the like, and arecommensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers tothose salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment,suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and lower animalswithout undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, andare commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. Pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, Berge et al.,describe pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J.Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1977, 66, 1-19, incorporated herein byreference. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of a compound include thosederived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples ofpharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts ofan amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid,hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid orwith organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid,tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, or malonic acid or by usingother methods known in the art such as ion exchange. Otherpharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate,aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate,camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate,digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate,glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate,hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate,lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate,methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate,oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate,phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate,tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts,and the like. Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal,alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N⁺(C₁₋₄ alkyl)₄ ⁻ salts.Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium,lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Furtherpharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxicammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed usingcounterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate,nitrate, loweralkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate.

The term “solvate” refers to forms of a compound that are associatedwith a solvent, usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physicalassociation may include hydrogen bonding. Conventional solvents includewater, methanol, ethanol, acetic acid, DMSO, THF, diethyl ether, and thelike. The compounds described herein may be prepared, e.g., incrystalline form, and may be solvated. Suitable solvates includepharmaceutically acceptable solvates and further include bothstoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates. In certaininstances, the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example, whenone or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice ofa crystalline solid. “Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase andisolable solvates. Representative solvates include hydrates,ethanolates, and methanolates.

The term “hydrate” refers to a compound which is associated with water.Typically, the number of the water molecules contained in a hydrate of acompound is in a definite ratio to the number of the compound moleculesin the hydrate. Therefore, a hydrate of a compound may be represented,for example, by the general formula R.x H₂O, wherein R is a compound andwherein x is a number greater than 0. A given compound may form morethan one type of hydrates, including, e.g., monohydrates (x is 1), lowerhydrates (x is a number greater than 0 and smaller than 1, e.g.,hemihydrates (R.0.5 H₂O)), and polyhydrates (x is a number greater than1, e.g., dihydrates (R.2 H₂O) and hexahydrates (R.6 H₂O)).

The term “tautomers” refer to compounds that are interchangeable formsof a particular compound structure, and that vary in the displacement ofhydrogen atoms and electrons. Thus, two structures may be in equilibriumthrough the movement of 7 electrons and an atom (usually H). Forexample, enols and ketones are tautomers because they are rapidlyinterconverted by treatment with either acid or base. Another example oftautomerism are the aci- and nitro-forms of phenylnitromethane, that arelikewise formed by treatment with acid or base. Tautomeric forms may berelevant to the attainment of the optimal chemical reactivity andbiological activity of a compound of interest.

It is also to be understood that compounds that have the same molecularformula but differ in the nature or sequence of bonding of their atomsor the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “isomers”. Isomersthat differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed“stereoisomers”.

Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed“diastereomers” and those that are non-superimposable mirror images ofeach other are termed “enantiomers”. When a compound has an asymmetriccenter, for example, it is bonded to four different groups, a pair ofenantiomers is possible. An enantiomer can be characterized by theabsolute configuration of its asymmetric center and is described by theR- and S-sequencing rules of Cahn and Prelog, or by the manner in whichthe molecule rotates the plane of polarized light and designated asdextrorotatory or levorotatory (i.e., as (+) or (−)-isomersrespectively). A chiral compound can exist as either individualenantiomer or as a mixture thereof. A mixture containing equalproportions of the enantiomers is called a “racemic mixture”.

The term “polymorphs” refers to a crystalline form of a compound (or asalt, hydrate, or solvate thereof) in a particular crystal packingarrangement. All polymorphs have the same elemental pharmaceuticalcomposition. Different crystalline forms usually have different X-raydiffraction patterns, infrared spectra, melting points, density,hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability,and solubility. Recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization,storage temperature, and other factors may cause one crystal form todominate. Various polymorphs of a compound can be prepared bycrystallization under different conditions.

The term “prodrugs” refer to compounds, including derivatives of thecompounds described herein, which have cleavable groups and become bysolvolysis or under physiological conditions the compounds describedherein, which are pharmaceutically active in vivo. Such examplesinclude, but are not limited to, choline ester derivatives and the like,N-alkylmorpholine esters and the like. Other derivatives of a compoundhave activity in both their acid and acid derivative forms, but in theacid sensitive form often offer advantages of solubility, tissuecompatibility, or delayed release in the mammalian organism (see,Bundgard, H., Design of Prodrugs, pp. 7-9, 21-24, Elsevier, Amsterdam1985). Prodrugs include acid derivatives well known to practitioners ofthe art, such as, for example, esters prepared by reaction of the parentacid with a suitable alcohol, or amides prepared by reaction of theparent acid compound with a substituted or unsubstituted amine, or acidanhydrides, or mixed anhydrides. Simple aliphatic or aromatic esters,amides, and anhydrides derived from acidic groups pendant on a compoundare particular prodrugs. In some cases it is desirable to prepare doubleester type prodrugs such as (acyloxy)alkyl esters or((alkoxycarbonyl)oxy)alkylesters. C₁-C₈ alkyl, C₂-C₈ alkenyl, C₂-C₈alkynyl, aryl, C₇-C₁₂ substituted aryl, and C₇-C₁₂ arylalkyl esters ofthe compounds described herein may be preferred.

The term “particle” refers to a small object, fragment, or piece of asubstance that may be a single element, inorganic material, organicmaterial, or mixture thereof. Examples of particles include polymericparticles, single-emulsion particles, double-emulsion particles,coacervates, liposomes, microparticles, nanoparticles, macroscopicparticles, pellets, crystals, aggregates, composites, pulverized, milledor otherwise disrupted matrices, and cross-linked protein orpolysaccharide particles, each of which have an average characteristicdimension of about less than about 1 mm and at least 1 nm, where thecharacteristic dimension, or “critical dimension,” of the particle isthe smallest cross-sectional dimension of the particle. A particle maybe composed of a single substance or multiple substances. In certainembodiments, the particle is not a viral particle. In other embodiments,the particle is not a liposome. In certain embodiments, the particle isnot a micelle. In certain embodiments, the particle is substantiallysolid throughout. In certain embodiments, the particle is ananoparticle. In certain embodiments, the particle is a microparticle.

The term “nanoparticle” refers to a particle having a characteristicdimension of less than about 1 micrometer and at least about 1nanometer, where the characteristic dimension of the particle is thesmallest cross-sectional dimension of the particle. A crystallinenanoparticle is referred to as a “nanocrystal.”

The term “microparticle” refers to a particle having a characteristicdimension of less than about 1 millimeter and at least about 1micrometer, where the characteristic dimension of the particle is thesmallest cross-sectional dimension of the particle.

As used herein, the term “carrier particles” means particles of anypharmaceutically acceptable inert material or combination thereof usedin inhalable dry powders or dry powder inhaler drug product. Carrierparticles include those made of excipients well known in the art,including those composed of one or more materials selected from sugaralcohols; polyols, such as sorbitol, mannitol and xylitol, andcrystalline sugars, including monosaccharides and disaccharides, such aslactose (e.g., anhydrous lactose or α-lactose monohydrate); organicsalts such as sodium lactate and other organic compounds such as urea;inorganic salts such as sodium chloride and calcium carbonate;polysaccharides, for example starch and its derivatives; andoligosaccharides, for example cyclodextrins and dextrins. In one aspect,preferred carrier particles are those made of lactose, and morepreferably those made of r-lactose monohydrate. For a DPI drug product,carrier particles are associated with particles of a pharmaceuticalagent, such as inventive particles comprising a compound of Formula (I)that are mucus penetrating. In certain aspects, a DPI drug productconsists of inventive particles are nanoparticles having reducedmucoadhesion and pharmaceutically acceptable carrier particles.

The term “nanostructure” refers to a structure having at least oneregion or characteristic dimension with a dimension of less than about1000 nm, e.g., less than about 400 nm, less than about 300 nm, less thanabout 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, or less than about 50 nm.Typically, the region or characteristic dimension will be along thesmallest axis of the structure. Examples of such structures includenanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanocrystals, nanotetrapods,tripods, bipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, quantum dots, nanoparticles,branched tetrapods (e.g., inorganic dendrimers), and the like.Nanostructures can be substantially homogeneous in material properties,or in certain embodiments can be heterogeneous (e.g. heterostructures).Nanostructures can be, e.g., substantially crystalline, substantiallymonocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, or a combination thereof.In one aspect, each of the three dimensions of the nanostructure has adimension of less than about 1000 nm, e.g., or even less than about 400nm, less than about 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 100nm, or less than about 50 nm. Nanostructures can comprise one or moresurface ligands (e.g., surfactants).

The terms “crystalline” or “substantially crystalline”, when used withrespect to nanostructures, refer to the fact that the nanostructurestypically exhibit long-range ordering across one or more dimensions ofthe structure. It will be understood by one of skill in the art that theterm “long range ordering” will depend on the absolute size of thespecific nanostructures, as ordering for a single crystal cannot extendbeyond the boundaries of the crystal. In this case, “long-rangeordering” will mean substantial order across at least the majority ofthe dimension of the nanostructure. In some instances, a nanostructurecan bear an oxide or other coating, or can be comprised of a core and atleast one shell. In such instances it will be appreciated that theoxide, shell(s), or other coating need not exhibit such ordering (e.g.it can be amorphous, polycrystalline, or otherwise). In such instances,the phrase “crystalline,” “substantially crystalline,” “substantiallymonocrystalline,” or “monocrystalline” refers to the central core of thenanostructure (excluding the coating layers or shells). The terms“crystalline” or “substantially crystalline” as used herein are intendedto also encompass structures comprising various defects, stackingfaults, atomic substitutions, and the like, as long as the structureexhibits substantial long range ordering (e.g., order over at leastabout 80% of the length of at least one axis of the nanostructure or itscore). In addition, it will be appreciated that the interface between acore and the outside of a nanostructure or between a core and anadjacent shell or between a shell and a second adjacent shell maycontain non-crystalline regions and may even be amorphous. This does notprevent the nanostructure from being crystalline or substantiallycrystalline as defined herein. The term “monocrystalline” when used withrespect to a nanostructure indicates that the nanostructure issubstantially crystalline and comprises substantially a single crystal.When used with respect to a nanostructure heterostructure comprising acore and one or more shells, “monocrystalline” indicates that the coreis substantially crystalline and comprises substantially a singlecrystal. When not used with respect to a nanostructure, the term“monocrystalline” to materials that are composed of substantially asingle crystallite of substantially the same size and orientation.

“Nanocrystal” is a nanostructure that is substantially monocrystalline.A nanocrystal thus has at least one region or characteristic dimensionwith a dimension of less than about 1000 nm, e.g., less than about 400nm, less than about 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 100nm, or less than about 50 nm. Typically, the region or characteristicdimension will be along the smallest axis of the structure. Examples ofsuch structures include nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branchednanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanobipods, nanocrystals,nanodots, quantum dots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, and the like.Nanostructures can be substantially homogeneous in material properties,or in certain embodiments can be heterogeneous (e.g. heterostructures).Optionally, a nanocrystal can comprise one or more surface ligands(e.g., surfactants). The nanocrystal is optionally substantially singlecrystal in structure (a “single crystal nanostructure” or a“monocrystalline nanostructure”). While nanostructures for use in thepresent invention can be fabricated from essentially any convenientmaterial or material, preferably the nanostructure is prepared from aninorganic material, e.g., an inorganic conductive or semiconductivematerial. A conductive or semi-conductive nanostructure often displays1-dimensional quantum confinement, e.g., an electron can often travelalong only one dimension of the structure. Nanocrystals can besubstantially homogeneous in material properties, or in certainembodiments can be heterogeneous (e.g., heterostructures). The term“nanocrystal” is intended to encompass substantially monocrystallinenanostructures comprising various defects, stacking faults, atomicsubstitutions, and the like, as well as substantially monocrystallinenanostructures without such defects, faults, or substitutions. In thecase of nanocrystal heterostructures comprising a core and one or moreshells, the core of the nanocrystal is typically substantiallymonocrystalline, but the shell(s) need not be. The nanocrystals can befabricated from essentially any convenient material or materials.

The term “polycrystalline” refers to materials that are composed of manycrystallites of varying size and orientation. When used with respect tonanostructures, the term “polycrystalline” refers to a crystallinenanostructure that is not monocrystalline.

A “biocompatible” material refers to a material that does not typicallyinduce an adverse response when inserted or injected into a subject. Theadverse response includes significant inflammation and/or acuterejection of the material by the immune system of the subject, forinstance, via a T-cell-mediated response. It is recognized that“biocompatibility” is a relative term and that some degree of immuneresponse is to be expected even for materials that are highly compatiblewith living tissues of the subject. However, as used herein,“biocompatibility” refers to the acute rejection of a material by atleast a portion of the immune system, i.e., a material that lacksbiocompatibility (i.e. being non-biocompatible) in a subject provokes animmune response in the subject that is severe enough such that therejection of the material by the immune system cannot be adequatelycontrolled and often is of a degree such that the material must beremoved from the subject in order for the subject to be as well as itwas before the non-biocompatible material was introduced into thesubject. One test to determine biocompatibility of a material is toexpose the material to cells (e.g., fibroblasts or epithelial cells) invitro; the material is considered biocompatible if it does not result insignificant cell death at moderate concentrations, e.g., atconcentrations of about 50 micrograms/10⁶ cells. In certain embodiments,there is no significant cell death if less than about 20% of the cellsare dead, even if phagocytosed or otherwise uptaken by the cells. Insome embodiments, a material is biocompatible if contacting it withcells in vitro results in less than 20% cell death and if theadministration of the material in vivo does not induce unwantedinflammation or other adverse responses. In certain embodiments, abiocompatible material is biodegradable. A non-limiting example ofbiocompatible materials is biocompatible polymers (includingbiocompatible copolymers).

A “biodegradable” material refers to a material that is able to degradechemically and/or biologically (e.g., by hydrolysis or enzymaticactivity), within a physiological environment, such as within the bodyor when introduced to cells. For instance, the material may be one thathydrolyzes spontaneously upon exposure to water (e.g., within a subject)and/or may degrade upon exposure to heat (e.g., at temperatures of about37° C.). Degradation of a material may occur at varying rates, dependingon the material used. For example, the half-life of the material (thetime at which 50% of the material is degraded into smaller components)may be on the order of days, weeks, months, or years. The material maybe biologically degraded, e.g., by enzymatic activity or cellularmachinery, for example, through exposure to a lysozyme. In someembodiments, the material may be broken down into smaller componentsthat cells can either reuse or dispose of without significant toxiceffect on the cells (e.g., fewer than about 20% of the cells are killedwhen the components are added to cells in vitro). Non-limiting examplesof biodegradable materials are biodegradable polymers (includingbiodegradable copolymers). Examples of biodegradable polymers include,but are not limited to, poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(propyleneoxide)-poly(ethylene glycol) triblock copolymers, poly(vinyl alcohol)(PVA), poly(lactide) (or poly(lactic acid)), poly(glycolide) (orpoly(glycolic acid)), poly(orthoesters), poly(caprolactones),polylysine, poly(ethylene imine), poly(acrylic acid), poly(urethanes),poly(anhydrides), poly(esters), poly(trimethylene carbonate),poly(ethyleneimine), poly(acrylic acid), poly(urethane), poly(beta aminoesters), and copolymers thereof (e.g., poly(lactide-co-glycolide)(PLGA)).

As used herein, the terms “pharmaceutical composition” and “formulation”are used interchangeably.

As used herein, the terms “pharmaceutical agent” and “drug” are usedinterchangeably.

A “subject” to which administration is contemplated includes, but is notlimited to, humans (i.e., a male or female of any age group, e.g., apediatric subject (e.g., infant, child, adolescent) or adult subject(e.g., young adult, middle-aged adult, or senior adult)) and/or othernon-human animals, for example, mammals (e.g., primates (e.g.,cynomolgus monkeys, rhesus monkeys)); commercially relevant mammals suchas cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, goats, cats, and/or dogs) and birds(e.g., commercially relevant birds such as chickens, ducks, geese,and/or turkeys). In certain embodiments, the animal is a mammal. Theanimal may be a male or female at any stage of development. The animalmay be a transgenic animal or genetically engineered animal. In certainembodiments, the subject is non-human animal. In certain embodiments,the animal is fish.

As defined herein, the term “target tissue” refers to any biologicaltissue of a subject (including a group of cells, a body part, or anorgan) or a part thereof, including blood and/or lymph vessels, which isthe object to which a compound, particle, and/or pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention is delivered. A target tissue may be anabnormal or unhealthy tissue, which may need to be treated. A targettissue may also be a normal or healthy tissue that is under a higherthan normal risk of becoming abnormal or unhealthy, which may need to beprevented.

The terms “administer,” “administering,” or “administration,” as usedherein, refers to implanting, absorbing, ingesting, injecting, inhaling,or otherwise introducing a compound, particle, and/or pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention into or onto a subject.

As used herein, the terms “treatment,” “treat,” and “treating” refer toreversing, alleviating, delaying the onset of, or inhibiting theprogress of a “pathological condition” (e.g., a disease, disorder, orcondition, or a sign or symptom thereof) described herein, such as abacterial infection. In some embodiments, treatment may be administeredafter one or more signs or symptoms have developed or have beenobserved. In other embodiments, treatment may be administered in theabsence of signs or symptoms of the disease or condition. For example,treatment may be administered to a susceptible individual prior to theonset of symptoms (e.g., in light of a history of symptoms and/or inlight of exposure to a pathogen). Treatment may also be continued aftersymptoms have resolved, for example, to delay or prevent recurrence.

As used herein, the terms “condition,” “disease,” and “disorder” areused interchangeably.

An “effective amount” of a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of theinvention) described herein refers to an amount sufficient to elicit thedesired biological response, i.e., treating the condition. As will beappreciated by those of ordinary skill in this art, the effective amountof a pharmaceutical agent described herein may vary depending on suchfactors as the desired biological endpoint, the pharmacokinetics of thepharmaceutical agent, the condition being treated, the mode ofadministration, and the age and health of the subject. An effectiveamount encompasses therapeutic and prophylactic treatment. For example,in treating a bacterial infection, an effective amount of apharmaceutical agent may inhibit the growth of the bacteria and/or killthe bacteria.

A “therapeutically effective amount” of a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., acompound of the invention) described herein is an amount sufficient toprovide a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of a condition or todelay or minimize one or more symptoms associated with the condition. Atherapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical agent means anamount of therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with othertherapies, which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of thecondition. The term “therapeutically effective amount” can encompass anamount that improves overall therapy, reduces or avoids symptoms orcauses of the condition, and/or enhances the therapeutic efficacy ofanother therapeutic agent.

A “prophylactically effective amount” of a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., acompound of the invention) described herein is an amount sufficient toprevent a condition, or one or more symptoms associated with thecondition or prevent its recurrence. A prophylactically effective amountof a pharmaceutical agent means an amount of a therapeutic agent, aloneor in combination with other agents, which provides a prophylacticbenefit in the prevention of the condition. The term “prophylacticallyeffective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overallprophylaxis or enhances the prophylactic efficacy of anotherprophylactic agent.

The term “biological sample” refers to any sample including tissuesamples (such as tissue sections and needle biopsies of a tissue); cellsamples (e.g., cytological smears (such as Pap or blood smears) orsamples of cells obtained by microdissection); samples of wholeorganisms (such as samples of yeasts or bacteria); or cell fractions,fragments, or organelles (such as obtained by lysing cells andseparating the components thereof by centrifugation or otherwise). Otherexamples of biological samples include blood, serum, urine, semen,sputum, fecal matter, cerebrospinal fluid, interstitial fluid, mucus,tears, sweat, pus, biopsied tissue (e.g., obtained by a surgical biopsyor needle biopsy), nipple aspirates, milk, vaginal fluid, saliva, swabs(such as buccal swabs), or any material containing biomolecules that isderived from a first biological sample.

A “protein” or “peptide” comprises a polymer of amino acid residueslinked together by peptide bonds. The term, as used herein, refers toproteins, polypeptides, and peptides of any size, structure, orfunction. Typically, a protein will be at least three amino acids long.A protein may refer to an individual protein or a collection ofproteins. A protein may contain only natural amino acids, althoughnon-natural amino acids (i.e., compounds that do not occur in nature butthat can be incorporated into a polypeptide chain) and/or amino acidanalogs as are known in the art may alternatively be employed. Also, oneor more of the amino acids in a protein may be modified, for example, bythe addition of a chemical entity such as a carbohydrate group, ahydroxyl group, a phosphate group, a farnesyl group, an isofarnesylgroup, a fatty acid group, a linker for conjugation orfunctionalization, or other modification. A protein may also be a singlemolecule or may be a multi-molecular complex. A protein may be afragment of a naturally occurring protein or peptide. A protein may benaturally occurring, recombinant, synthetic, or any combination ofthese.

The present application refers to various issued patents, publishedpatent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forthherein. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will beapparent from the Detailed Description, the Figures, the Examples, andthe Claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described byway of example with reference to the accompanying figure, which areschematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures,each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typicallyrepresented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not everycomponent is labeled, nor is every component of each embodiment of theinvention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those ofordinary skill in the art to understand the invention. In the figures:

FIG. 1 (FIG. 1) is a schematic drawing of a mucus-penetrating particle(MPP) comprising a core and a coating.

FIG. 2 (FIG. 2) is a schematic drawing showing MPPs and conventionalparticles in a mucus layer of the respiratory tract of a subject afterinhalational administration of the particles. The MPPs readily penetratethe outer mucus layer toward the glycocalyx while the conventionalparticles (CPs) are immobilized in the outer layer of mucus. Theclearance of the outer layer by the subject's natural clearancemechanisms may be accompanied by removal of the pharmaceuticalcomposition, whereas MPPs are retained in the less rapidly clearedglycocalyx, leading to prolonged residence at the surface of therespiratory tract.

FIG. 3 (FIG. 3) shows polarized microscopy and SEM images of compoundI-A-1, a crystalline compound, before and after milling.

FIG. 4 (FIG. 4) shows mass transport data demonstrating the mobility ofcompound I-A-1 in diluted cervicovaginal mucus.

FIG. 5 (FIG. 5) shows that compound I-A-1 is converted into meropenemafter incubation at 37° C. in mucus from a cystic fibrosis (CF) patient.

FIG. 6 (FIG. 6) shows the typical drug release profile of compound I-A-1particles obtained by nanoprecipitation with polylactide (PLA) 100DL7A.Drug release data was obtained after incubation at 37° C. in PBS (pH7.4) in the presence of 0.5% TWEEN 80.

FIG. 7 (FIG. 7) is a plot showing the pharmacokinetics of meropenem inthe lung of guinea pigs after intra-tracheal (IT) dosing from a solutionof meropenem or Compound I-A-1 (a meropenem prodrug) formulated as amucus-penetrating particle (MPP) prepared according to Example 3. Errorbars show the standard errors of the mean (n=3 animals per time point).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides novel compounds of Formula (I), andpharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs,co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeledderivatives thereof. The compounds of the invention are derivatives ofβ-lactam antibiotics. In certain embodiments, the β-lactam antibioticsare carbapenems (e.g., meropenem (1), doripenem (2), ertapenem (3), andimipenem (4) shown below). The derivative typically has a lower aqueoussolubility and/or hydrophilicity than the parent β-lactam antibiotic andmay be converted in vivo to yield the parent β-lactam antibiotics.Compared to the parent β-lactam antibiotic, the derivative, whenadministered in a conventional pharmaceutical composition to a subject,may show improved bioavailability (e.g., oral bioavailability).Moreover, the derivative may be more easily processed intomucus-penetrating particles (MPPs) and/or mucus-penetrating crystals(MPCs) suitable for inhalational administration to the respiratory tractof the subject. These advantages of the derivative over the parentβ-lactam antibiotic may be due to the lower aqueous solubility and/orhydrophilicity of the derivative.

In one aspect of the present invention, the duration of a β-lactamantibiotic (such as meropenem) is improved by a compound of Formula (I)of the present invention, which has low aqueous solubility and thus isnot rapidly absorbed systemically after local deliver to the targettissue (e.g., the lungs). In a further embodiment of the invention, toreduce clearance by mucus, an inventive compound of Formula (I) isformulated as mucus penetrating particles that do not bind to mucus, andonce delivered to the lungs (e.g., either in a solution or in aninhalable dry powder formulation that uses larger carrier particles),mucus penetrating particles of the inventive compound dissolve into thecompound molecules, which are then rapidly cleaved into the parentβ-lactam compound, e.g., meropenem.

The present invention further provides pharmaceutical compositions andkits comprising the inventive compounds. Methods of using and preparingthe inventive compounds, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits are alsoprovided by the invention.

Also provided by the present invention are particles that may penetratemucus, pharmaceutical compositions thereof, kits, and methods of usingand preparing the particles, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof.The pharmaceutical compositions, kits, and methods may involve modifyingthe surface coatings of particles, such as particles of pharmaceuticalagents that have a low aqueous solubility. Such pharmaceuticalcompositions, kits, and methods can be used to achieve efficienttransport of particles comprising the inventive compounds through mucusbarriers in a subject.

In certain embodiments, the compounds, particles, pharmaceuticalcompositions, kits, and methods of the invention are useful forapplications in the respiratory tract, such as treating and/orpreventing a pulmonary disease (e.g., a respiratory tract infection).

The particles (e.g., nanoparticles and microparticles) of the inventioncomprise a compound of the invention. The particles of the inventionalso include a surface-altering agent that modifies the surface of theparticles to reduce the adhesion of the particles to mucus and/or tofacilitate penetration of the particles through mucus.

The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositionscomprising the inventive particles. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions of the invention can be inhalationallyadministered to the respiratory tract of a subject, such as the upperrespiratory tract (e.g., nose and nasal passages, paranasal sinuses, andthroat or pharynx), respiratory airways (e.g., voice box or larynx,trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles), and lungs (e.g., respiratorybronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli). Inhalablepharmaceutical compositions are advantageous over pharmaceuticalcompositions that are administered intravenously, intramuscularly, ororally. First, patients are sometimes required to be hospitalized duringintravenous or intramuscular administration. Second, intravenous orintramuscular injections are considered by many to be invasive. Third,patients undergoing intravenous, intramuscular, or oral therapy oftenexperience adverse effects associated with systemic drug exposure. Incontrast, inhalable pharmaceutical compositions can be administered asin-home therapy, thereby eliminating the additional hospitalizationcosts associated with intravenous or intramuscular therapy. In addition,inhalable pharmaceutical compositions minimize systemic drug exposure,which frequently decreases adverse reactions.

Delivering drugs to the respiratory tract inhalationally is challenging.Soluble drugs are absorbed rapidly into circulation, and away fromtarget tissue in the lungs, and insoluble drugs are typically trapped bythe rapidly cleared mucus layer and hence are rapidly cleared.Therefore, conventional inhalable pharmaceutical compositions currentlyused to treat pulmonary diseases are often administered at high dosesand/or high frequency in order to achieve and sustain efficacy. Suchfrequent and/or high dosing greatly reduces patient compliance andincreases the risk of local adverse effects.

Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are advantageous overexisting inhalable pharmaceutical compositions that are marketed or inlate-stage clinical development, such as TOBI®, CAYSTON®, TIP®, andARIKACE®. These inhalable pharmaceutical compositions are solutions andthe drug is absorbed rapidly systemically, and they do not includenanoparticles of drug that mucus-penetrating. In contrast,pharmaceutical compositions of the invention comprise particles of aninsoluble compound of the invention that are able to more readilypenetrate the mucus layer of the respiratory tract tissue to avoid orminimize mucus adhesion and/or rapid mucus clearance. Therefore, thepharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be more effective indelivering antibiotics to mucus-lined epithelium and may be retainedlonger in the mucus-containing tissues such as the respiratory tract. Asa result, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may beadministered at a lower dose and/or less frequently than currentlymarketed pharmaceutical compositions to achieve similar or superiorresults. Moreover, the relatively low and/or infrequent dosage of thepharmaceutical compositions may result in fewer or less severe sideeffects, a more desirable toxicity profile, and/or improved patientcompliance.

Compounds

β-Lactam antibiotics, such as carbapenems (e.g., meropenem (1),doripenem (2), ertapenem (3), and imipenem (4)), are useful in treatingvarious infectious diseases. They are particularly effective at treatinga broad spectrum (including gram-positive, gram-negative, and anaerobicbacteria) of bacterial infections. Prodrugs of beta-lactam antibioticshave been developed to increase absorption, therefore improving oralbioavailability. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,410,525 and U.S. PatentApplication Publication US 2004/0176350, each of which is incorporatedby reference in its entirety. Examples of clinically approved drugs thathave benefitted from the improved oral bioavailability of prodrugsinclude cefditoren pivoxil, pivampicillin, bacampicillin, andpivmecillinam.

In one aspect, the present invention provides derivatives of β-lactamantibiotics. The derivatives may show higher oral bioavailability thanthe parent β-lactam compounds. The derivatives may also show loweraqueous solubility and/or higher hydrophobicity than the parent β-lactamantibiotic. Compared to the parent compound, the derivatives with alower aqueous solubility and/or higher hydrophobicity may be more easilyprocessed into mucus-penetrating particles, crystals, and pharmaceuticalcomposition. The derivative, upon or after being administered to asubject as it is or in the form of mucus-penetrating particles orpharmaceutical compositions comprising the same, may be converted invivo to provide the parent β-lactam compound.

In certain embodiments, the present invention provides compounds ofFormula (I):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs,co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeledderivatives thereof,wherein:

------ is a single bond or null;

is a single or double bond;

R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted heteroaliphatic, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl;

R^(B) is —C(═O)—N(Me)₂, —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂,

═NH, or

R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, orsubstituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl;

R^(F) is hydrogen or methyl; and

provided that when R^(A) is an unsubstituted C₄ aliphatic, then R^(C) isan unsubstituted C₆-C₁₂ aliphatic, a substituted aliphatic, substitutedor unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, orsubstituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl.

Any reference to a compound includes pharmaceutically acceptable salts,solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers,and isotopically labeled derivatives thereof.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides compounds ofFormula (I):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs,co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeledderivatives thereof,wherein:

------ is a single bond or null;

is a single or double bond;

R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted heteroaliphatic, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl;

R^(B) is —C(═O)—N(Me)₂, —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂,

═NH, or

R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, orsubstituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl;

R^(F) is hydrogen or methyl; and

provided that when R^(A) is an unsubstituted C₁₋₄ aliphatic, then R^(C)is an unsubstituted C₆-C₁₂ aliphatic, a substituted aliphatic,substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl.

In certain embodiments, the present invention provides compounds ofFormula (I), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

In certain embodiments, ------ is a single bond. In certain embodiments,------ is null.

In certain embodiments

is a single bond. In certain embodiments,

is a double bond.

A compound of Formula (I) includes substituent R^(A). In certainembodiments, R^(A) is substituted aliphatic. In certain embodiments,R^(A) is unsubstituted aliphatic. The aliphatic group may be branched orunbranched. The aliphatic group may also be saturated or unsaturated andmay include any number of double and/or triple bonds as valency permits.In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted C₁₋₃ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted C₅₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is a straight-chained C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A)is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is C₁₋₁₂ alkyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is straight-chained C₁₋₁₂ alkyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) isstraight-chained C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is methyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted methyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is —CH₂F. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is —CHF₂. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is —CF₃. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is Bn.In certain embodiments, R^(A) is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) issubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is —(CH₂)₂Ph. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is propyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) isbutyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is pentyl. In certain embodiments,R^(A) is hexyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is heptyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is octyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is nonyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is decyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) isundecyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is dodecyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A)is unsubstituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is vinyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted alkynyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments,R^(A) is ethynyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments,R^(A) is monocyclic carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) issubstituted or unsubstituted 3- to 7-membered monocyclic carbocyclyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted cylcopropyl.In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted or unsubstitutedcylcobutyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted orunsubstituted cyclopentyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substitutedor unsubstituted cyclohexyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) issubstituted or unsubstituted cycloheptyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A)is fused, bridged, or spiro bicyclic carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted 6- to 14-memberedbicyclic carbocyclyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted aryl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A)is substituted or unsubstituted 6- to 14-membered aryl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments,R^(A) is substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) ismonosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) isortho-monosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) ismeta--monosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) ispara-monosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) isdisubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is trisubstitutedphenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is tetrasubstituted phenyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is pentasubstituted phenyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is phenyl substituted with one to five substituentsindependently selected from the group consisting of halogen, substitutedor unsubstituted acyl, substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic,substituted or unsubstituted heteroaliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is phenyl substituted with oneto five substituents independently selected from the group consisting ofhalogen, substituted or unsubstituted C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic, and substitutedor unsubstituted C₁₋₁₂ heteroaliphatic including 1-4 heteroatomsindependently selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, andnitrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted naphthyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted naphthyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(A) is substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) is monocyclic, bicyclic (e.g.,fused bicyclic), or tricyclic heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A)is substituted or unsubstituted, monocyclic, 5- to 7-memberedheteroaryl, wherein one, two, or three atoms in the ring of theheteroaryl are independently nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted, bicyclic, 10- to14-membered heteroaryl, wherein one, two, three, four, or five atoms inthe ring of the heteroaryl are independently nitrogen, oxygen, orsulfur.

Each of meropenem (1), doripenem (2), ertapenem (3), and imipenem (4)includes a substituent (i.e., —C(═O)—N(Me)₂, —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂,

and ═NH, respectively) on the carbon atom α-to the amino moiety of theseβ-lactam antibiotics. Compounds of Formula (I) also include asubstituent R^(B). In certain embodiments, R^(B) is of the formula:—C(═O)—N(Me)₂. In certain embodiments, R^(B) is of the formula:—CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂. In certain embodiments, R^(B) is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, R^(B) is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, R^(B) is of the formula: ═NH. In certainembodiments, R^(B) is of the formula:

Meropenem (1), doripenem (2), ertapenem (3), and imipenem include—C(═O)—N(Me)₂, —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂,

and ═NH respectively.

A compound of Formula (I) includes a substituent R^(C). In certainembodiments, R^(C) is substituted aliphatic. In certain embodiments,R^(C) is unsubstituted aliphatic. The aliphatic group may be branched orunbranched. The aliphatic group may also be saturated or unsaturated andmay include any number of double and/or triple bonds as valency permits.In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is a straight-chained C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted C₆₋₁₂ aliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C)is unsubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is C₁₋₁₂ alkyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is straight-chained C₁₋₁₂ alkyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) isstraight-chained C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is methyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted methyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is —CH₂F. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is —CHF₂. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is —CF₃. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is Bn.In certain embodiments, R^(C) is ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) issubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is —(CH₂)₂Ph. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is propyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) isbutyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is pentyl. In certain embodiments,R^(C) is hexyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is heptyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is octyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is nonyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is decyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) isundecyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is dodecyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C)is unsubstituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is vinyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted alkynyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments,R^(C) is ethynyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments,R^(C) is monocyclic carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) issubstituted or unsubstituted 3- to 7-membered monocyclic carbocyclyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted cylcopropyl.In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted or unsubstitutedcylcobutyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted orunsubstituted cyclopentyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substitutedor unsubstituted cyclohexyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) issubstituted or unsubstituted cycloheptyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C)is fused, bridged, or spiro bicyclic carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted 6- to 14-memberedbicyclic carbocyclyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted aryl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(C)is substituted or unsubstituted 6- to 14-membered aryl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments,R^(C) is substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) ismonosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) isortho-monosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) ismeta--monosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) ispara-monosubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) isdisubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is trisubstitutedphenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is tetrasubstituted phenyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is pentasubstituted phenyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is phenyl substituted with one to five substituentsindependently selected from the group consisting of halogen, substitutedor unsubstituted acyl, substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic,substituted or unsubstituted heteroaliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is phenyl substituted with oneto five substituents independently selected from the group consisting ofhalogen, substituted or unsubstituted C₁₋₁₂ aliphatic, and substitutedor unsubstituted C₁₋₁₂ heteroaliphatic including 1-4 heteroatomsindependently selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, andnitrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted naphthyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted naphthyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(C) is substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(C) is monocyclic, bicyclic (e.g.,fused bicyclic), or tricyclic heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(C)is substituted or unsubstituted, monocyclic, 5- to 7-memberedheteroaryl, wherein one, two, or three atoms in the ring of theheteroaryl are independently nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted, bicyclic, 10- to14-membered heteroaryl, wherein one, two, three, four, or five atoms inthe ring of the heteroaryl are independently nitrogen, oxygen, orsulfur.

In certain embodiments, R^(A) and R^(C) are each substituted 6- to14-membered aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) and R^(C) are eachunsubstituted 6- to 14-membered aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) andR^(C) are each substituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) andR^(C) are each unsubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) andR^(C) are each substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) andR^(C) are each unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A)and R^(C) are each substituted, 3- to 7-membered, monocycliccarbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^(A) and R^(C) are eachunsubstituted, 3- to 7-membered, monocyclic carbocyclyl. In certainembodiments, R^(A) is unsubstituted, 3- to 7-membered, monocycliccarbocyclyl; and R^(C) is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certainembodiments, R^(C) is unsubstituted, 3- to 7-membered, monocycliccarbocyclyl; and R^(A) is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In certain embodiments, R^(F) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(F)is methyl.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-A):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula(I-A-1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-B):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula(I-B-1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-C):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of FormulaI-C-1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-D):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula(I-D-1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula (I-E):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of Formula(I-E-1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.

Compounds of the invention may be crystalline. In certain embodiments,the compounds of the invention are monocrystalline. In certainembodiments, the compounds of the invention are polycrystalline.

Compounds of the invention may also have a relatively low aqueoussolubility (i.e., a solubility in water, optionally with one or morebuffers). In certain embodiments, the aqueous solubility of the compoundof the invention is lower than that of the parent β-lactam compound, orpharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. For example, compounds of theinvention may have an aqueous solubility of less than about or equal toabout 3 mg/mL, less than about 1 mg/mL, less than about 0.3 mg/mL, lessthan about 0.1 mg/mL, less than about 0.03 mg/mL, less than about 0.01mg/mL, less than about 1 μg/mL, less than about 0.1 μg/mL, less thanabout 0.01 μg/mL, less than about 1 ng/mL, less than about 0.1 ng/mL, orless than about 0.01 ng/mL at 25° C. In some embodiments, the compoundsof the invention have an aqueous solubility of at least about 1 pg/mL,at least about 10 pg/mL, at least about 0.1 ng/mL, at least about 1ng/mL, at least about 10 ng/mL, at least about 0.1 μg/mL, at least about1 μg/mL, at least about 3 μg/mL, at least about 0.01 mg/mL, at leastabout 0.03 mg/mL, at least about 0.1 mg/mL, at least about 0.3 mg/mL, atleast about 1.0 mg/mL, or at least about 3 mg/mL at 25° C. Combinationsof the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., an aqueous solubility ofat least about 10 pg/mL and less than about 1 mg/mL). Other ranges arealso possible. The compounds of the invention may have these or otherranges of aqueous solubilities at any point throughout the pH range(e.g., at about pH 7 or from pH 1 to pH 14).

Compounds of the invention may be suitable for being processed intomucus-penetrating pharmaceutical compositions (e.g., particles orcrystals). In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention aresuitable for milling (e.g., nano-milling). In certain embodiments, thecompounds of the invention are suitable for precipitation (e.g.,microprecipitation, nanoprecipitation, crystallization, or controlledcrystallization). In certain embodiments, the compounds of the inventionare suitable for emulsification. In certain embodiments, the compoundsof the invention are suitable for freeze-drying.

The suitability of the compounds of the invention may be due to therelatively low aqueous solubility of the compounds.

Compounds of the invention, as derivatives of the parent β-lactamcompounds, may convert (e.g., be hydrolyzed) to provide the parentβ-lactam compounds. In certain embodiments, the compounds of theinvention are hydrolyzed to provide compounds of Formula (II):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs,co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, and isotopically labeledderivatives thereof,wherein:

------,

, and R^(F) are as described herein; and

R^(B1) is —C(═O)—N(Me)₂, —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂,

or ═NH.

The conversion of the compounds of the invention may occur in vitro, exvitro, or in vivo. The conversion of the compounds of the invention mayoccur at any point from 0 to 100° C. (e.g., at about 37° C. or from 20to 40° C.) and at any pH (e.g., at about pH 7 or from pH 1 to pH 14). Incertain embodiments, the conversion of the compounds of the inventionoccurs under physiological conditions. The compounds of the inventionmay be biologically converted, e.g., by enzymatic activity or cellularmachinery. The compounds of the invention may also be chemicallyconverted, e.g., not by enzymatic activity or cellular machinery. Thehalf-life of the compounds of the invention (the time at which 50% ofthe compounds of the invention are converted into compounds of Formula(II) and/or other compounds) may be on the order of minutes, hours(e.g., about 1 hour, about 2 hours, about 6 hours, and about 12 hours),days (e.g., about 1 day, about 2 days, about 3 days, and about 5 days),and weeks. The compounds of the invention may convert to yield othercompounds in addition to the parent β-lactam compounds. In certainembodiments, the other compounds are those cells can either reuse ordispose of without significant toxic effect on the cells (i.e., fewerthan about 20% of the cells are killed when contacted with the othercompounds).

Methods of Preparing the Inventive Compounds

In another aspect, the present application provides methods of preparingthe compounds of the invention. The inventive compounds are derivativesof certain β-lactam antibiotics (e.g., meropenem (1), doripenem (2), andertapenem (3)). Compared to the parent 3-lactam antibiotics, theinventive compounds may be more hydrophobic and/or less water-soluble.The compounds of the invention may be synthesized by converting thepolar moieties, especially, groups that may be protonated ordeprotonated to carry positive or negative charges at certain pH ranges(e.g., amino and carboxyl groups), of a parent β-lactam antibiotic toless polar groups (e.g., carbamates and esters). It is also desired thatthe less polar groups are capable of being converted (e.g., beinghydrolyzed) into the polar moieties in vivo. In certain embodiments, themethods of preparing the compounds include reacting a compound ofFormula (i-A), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof, with a compound of Formula (i-B) to providea compound of Formula (i-C), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, orisotopically labeled derivative thereof:

reacting the compound of Formula (i-C), or the salt, tautomer,stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivative thereof, with a baseand a compound of Formula (i-D) to provide the compound of Formula (I),or a pharmaceutical acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof:

wherein:

R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), and R^(F) are as described herein;

R^(D) is an electron-withdrawing group; and

R^(E) is a leaving group.

A compound of Formula (i-A), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, orisotopically labeled derivative thereof, include an amino group and one(when R^(B) is —C(═O)—N(Me)₂ or —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂) or two (when R^(B)is

carboxyl groups. Compared to the carboxyl group(s), the amino group of acompound of Formula (i-A) is more nucleophilic and may react with anelectrophile, such as an ester (e.g., a carbonate, such as a compound ofFormula (i-B), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof) to form a substitution reaction intermediate(i-C), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeledderivative thereof, while the carboxyl group(s) remains unreacted. Incertain embodiments, the inventive methods include reacting a compoundof Formula (i-A), or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof, with a substantially stoichiometric amountof a compound of Formula (i-B).

A base is employed in the inventive methods of preparing the compoundsof the invention. In certain embodiments, the base is an inorganic base.In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is ammonia. In certainembodiments, the inorganic base is ammonium carbonate. In certainembodiments, the inorganic base is ammonium hydroxide. In certainembodiments, the inorganic base is an alkali metal phosphate tribasic.In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is Li₃PO₄, Na₃PO₄, K₃PO₄,Rb₃PO₄, or Cs₃PO₄. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is analkali metal phosphate dibasic. In certain embodiments, the inorganicbase is Li₂H₂PO₄, Na₂HPO₄, K₂H₂PO₄, Rb₂HPO₄, or Cs₂H₂PO₄. In certainembodiments, the inorganic base is an alkali metal phosphate monobasic.In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is LiH₂PO₄, NaH₂PO₄, KH₂PO₄,RbH₂PO₄, or CsH₂PO₄. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is analkali metal carbonate. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base isLi₂CO₃, Na₂CO₃, K₂CO₃, Rb₂CO₃, or Cs₂CO₃. In certain embodiments, theinorganic base is an alkali metal bicarbonate. In certain embodiments,the inorganic base is LiHCO₃, NaHCO₃, KHCO₃, RbHCO₃, or CsHCO₃. Incertain embodiments, the inorganic base is an alkali metal hydroxide. Incertain embodiments, the inorganic base is LiGH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, orCsOH. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is an alkaline earthmetal carbonate. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is BeCO₃,MgCO₃, CaCO₃, SrCO₃, or BaCO₃. In certain embodiments, the inorganicbase is an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate. In certain embodiments, theinorganic base is Be(HCO₃)₂, Mg(HCO₃)₂, Ca(HCO₃)₂, Sr(HCO₃)₂, orBa(HCO₃)₂. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base is an alkalineearth metal hydroxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic base isBe(OH)₂, Mg(OH)₂, Ca(OH)₂, Sr(OH)₂, or Ba(OH)₂. In certain embodiments,the base is an organic base. In certain embodiments, the organic base isan aliphatic amine. In certain embodiments, the organic base is anaromatic amine. In certain embodiments, the organic base is a primaryamine. In certain embodiments, the organic base is a secondary amine. Incertain embodiments, the organic base is a tertiary amine. In certainembodiments, the organic base is triethyl amine,N,N-diisopropylethylamine, or 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU).In certain embodiments, the organic base is substituted pyridine. Incertain embodiments, the organic base is 2,6-lutidine or4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP). In certain embodiments, the organic baseis unsubstituted pyridine.

Compounds of Formula (i-B) include an electron-withdrawing group asR^(D). All electron-withdrawing groups described herein and known in theart are contemplated as being within the scope of the invention. Incertain embodiments, R^(D) is phenyl substituted with one or moresubstituents, wherein at least one substituent is halogen, partially orfully halogenated aliphatic, cyclopropyl, partially or fully halogenatedcarbocyclyl, —N(R^(D1))₃ ⁺, —CN, —NO₂, —C(═NR^(D1))R^(D1),—C(═NR^(D1))OR^(D1), —C(═NR^(D1))N(R^(D1))₂, —C(═O)R^(D1),—C(═O)OR^(D1), —C(═O)N(R^(D1))₂, —S(═O)R^(D1), —S(═O)OR^(D1),—S(═O)N(R^(D1))₂, —S(═O)₂R^(D1), —S(═O)₂OR^(D1), S(═O)₂N(R^(D1))₂,—OS(═O)R^(D1), —OS(═O)OR^(D1), —OS(═O)N(R^(D1))₂, —OS(═O)₂R^(D1),—OS(═O)₂OR^(D1), or —OS(═O)₂N(R^(D1))₂, wherein each instance of R^(D1)is independently substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted heteroaliphatic, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. In certainembodiments, R^(D) is phenyl substituted with one or more substituents,wherein at least one substituent is —NO₂. In certain embodiments, R^(D)is of the formula:

and n is 1 or 2. In certain embodiments, R^(D) is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, R^(D) is phenyl substituted with one or moresubstituents, wherein at least one substituent is —CN. In certainembodiments, R^(D) is of the formula:

and n is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, R^(D) is of the formula:

Compounds of Formula (i-D) include a leaving group as RE. All leavinggroups described herein and known in the art are contemplated as beingwithin the scope of the invention. In certain embodiments, R^(E) ishalogen. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is F. In certain embodiments,R^(E) is Cl. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is Br. In certainembodiments, R^(E) is I (iodine). In certain embodiments, R^(E) is—OS(═O)_(w)R^(E1). In certain embodiments, w is 1. In certainembodiments, w is 2. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OMs. In certainembodiments, R^(E) is —OTf. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OTs. Incertain embodiments, R^(E) is —OBs. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is2-nitrobenzenesulfonyloxy. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OR^(E1). Incertain embodiments, R^(E) is —OMe. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is—OCF₃. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OPh. In certain embodiments,R^(E) is —OC(═O)R^(E1). In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OC(═O)Me. Incertain embodiments, R^(E) is —OC(═O)CF₃. In certain embodiments, R^(E)is —OC(═O)Ph. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OC(═O)Cl. In certainembodiments, R^(E) is —OC(═O)OR^(E1). In certain embodiments, R^(E) is—OC(═O)OMe. In certain embodiments, R^(E) is —OC(═O)O(t-Bu). In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is substituted aliphatic. In certain embodiments,R^(E1) is unsubstituted aliphatic. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) issubstituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstitutedalkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is methyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is ethyl.In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is propyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1)is butyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is substituted alkenyl. Incertain embodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstituted alkenyl. In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is vinyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) issubstituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstitutedalkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is ethynyl. In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is substituted heteroaliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstituted heteroaliphatic. In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments,R^(E1) is unsubstituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) issubstituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) isunsubstituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) issubstituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstituted aryl.In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is substituted phenyl. In certainembodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstituted phenyl. In certain embodiments,R^(E1) is substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) isunsubstituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is substitutedpyridyl. In certain embodiments, R^(E1) is unsubstituted pyridyl.

The steps of the methods of preparing the compounds of the invention maybe performed under any suitable conditions. A suitable condition is acombination of physical and chemical parameters under which an inventivecompound of the invention or intermediate thereto may be formed usingthe inventive methods. A suitable condition may include a suitablesolvent, such as an organic solvent (e.g., e.g., acetone, acetonitrile(ACN), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMA),dimethysulfoxide (DMSO), N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), 2-pyrrolidone,tetrahydrofuran (THF), or a mixture thereof), an inorganic solvent(e.g., water)), or a mixture thereof. In certain embodiments, thesuitable solvent is DMF.

A suitable condition may also include a suitable temperature under whichone or more steps of a method of preparing the compounds of theinvention are performed. In certain embodiments, the suitabletemperature is at least about 0° C., at least about 20° C., at leastabout 25° C., at least about 40° C., at least about 60° C., at leastabout 80° C., or at least about 100° C. In certain embodiments, thesuitable temperature is lower than about 100° C., lower than about 80°C., lower than about 60° C., lower than about 40° C., lower than about25° C., lower than about 20° C., or lower than about 0° C. Combinationsof the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., a suitabletemperature of at least about 0° C. and lower than about 40° C.). Otherranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the suitabletemperature is about 20° C. A suitable temperature may be a variabletemperature during one or more steps of a method of preparing thecompounds.

A suitable condition may also include a suitable pressure under whichone or more steps of the inventive methods are performed. In certainembodiments, the suitable pressure is about 1 atmosphere. A suitablepressure may also be higher or lower than 1 atmosphere.

A suitable condition may also include a suitable atmosphere under whichone or more steps of the inventive methods of preparing the compounds ofthe invention are performed. In certain embodiments, the suitableatmosphere is air. In certain embodiments, the suitable atmosphere is aninert atmosphere. In certain embodiments, the suitable atmosphere is anitrogen or argon atmosphere.

A suitable condition may also include a suitable time duration that oneor more steps of a method of preparing the compounds of the inventionlast. In certain embodiments, the suitable time duration is in the orderof minutes, hours, or days.

A suitable condition may also include irradiation with microwave and/orstirring. One or more intermediates (e.g., a compound of Formula (i-C),or a salt, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof) resulting from a step of a method of preparing the compounds ofthe invention may be isolated and/or purified, and the isolated and/orpurified intermediates may be reacted in a next step of the method. Theisolated and/or purified intermediates may be substantially pure or maycontain one or more other components, such as reagents and solventsemployed in the step yielding the intermediates and byproducts. The oneor more intermediates may also be reacted in the next step without beingisolated and/or purified.

Pharmaceutical Compositions, Kits, and Uses

The present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising acompound of the invention, such as a compound of Formula (I), or apharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositionscomprising a plurality of particles of the invention, which may bemucus-penetrating and may include a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., acompound of the invention). The inventive pharmaceutical compositionsmay be useful to deliver the pharmaceutical agent to the respiratorytract of a subject and to treat and/or prevent a respiratory tractdisease of the subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention further provides aformulation, in the form of inhalable dry powder, comprising a compoundof Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate,polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, and isotopically labeledderivative thereof, wherein the compound is formulated withpharmaceutically acceptable carrier particles, and optionally, one ormore additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. In oneembodiment, the compound of Formula (I) is formulated as a plurality ofnanoparticles that have reduced mucoadhesion.

As shown illustratively in FIG. 2, the outer layer of a respiratorytract of a subject is comprised of secreted mucins 310 which may becleared rapidly by mucin turnover, whose primary role is to trap andeliminate allergens, pathogens, and debris (including drug particles)from the aqueous layer 305 of the respiratory tract. The inner layer(thickness up to 500 nm) is formed by mucins tethered to epithelium 315(glycocalyx), which protects the underlying tissue from abrasive stressand are cleared less rapidly. Without wishing to be bound by theory, itis believed that conventional particles (CPs, e.g., non-MPPs) aretrapped in the outer mucus layer and are readily cleared from thesurface of the respiratory tract. Thus, the conventional particles maybe cleared before the drugs contained in the particles can betransported to other portions of the respiratory tract (e.g., bydiffusion or other mechanisms). In contrast, the particles of theinvention (e.g., MPPs) may avoid adhesion to secreted mucins, and thusmay penetrate the peripheral mucus layer and reach the slow-clearingglycocalyx, thereby prolonging particle retention and sustaining drugrelease (FIG. 2). This suggests that the particles of the invention maydeliver drugs to underlying tissues of the respiratory tract much moreefficiently than CPs trapped in outer mucus.

The present invention also provides methods of increasing the coverageuniformity of the inventive particles and/or of pharmaceutical agentsincluded in the particles over the surface of a target tissue of therespiratory tract. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention maycreate an even coverage of particles and/or pharmaceutical agent over alarge area of the surface of the respiratory tract, where a conventionalformulation without the coatings described herein may not spread asevenly due to their immobilization in mucus. Therefore, thepharmaceutical compositions of the invention may enhance efficacy bymore uniform coverage. This in turn, with or without higherconcentrations, may enhance penetration through mucus. The presentinvention provides particles, and pharmaceutical compositions comprisingthe same, that are mucus-penetrating and can address the issuesassociated with delivery of a pharmaceutical agent to the mucus ofand/or a target tissue of the respiratory tract of a subject. Theparticles may avoid adhesion to the mucus and/or may be more evenlyspread across the surface of the respiratory tract, thereby avoiding therespiratory tract's clearance mechanisms and prolonging their residencetime in the mucus, which may be useful in delivering a pharmaceuticalagent to the mucus of the respiratory tract and in treating and/orpreventing a respiratory tract disease caused by pathogenicmicroorganisms in the mucus. For example, the particles in mucus mayreadily diffuse, e.g., driven by the Brownian motion of the particlesand optionally a concentration gradient, to another area of the mucus,such as where the concentration of the particles is lower (e.g., mucusfreshly generated by the respiratory tract). Moreover, the mobileparticles may effectively penetrate through mucus to reach a targettissue of the respiratory tract underneath the mucus, and therefore, maybe useful in delivering a pharmaceutical agent to the target tissue andin treating and/or preventing a respiratory tract disease that is causedby pathogenic microorganisms in the target tissue.

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention have a core-shelltype configuration. The core may comprise any suitable material such asa solid pharmaceutical agent or a salt thereof having a relatively lowaqueous solubility, a polymeric carrier, a lipid, and/or a protein. Thecore may also comprise a gel or a liquid. The core may be coated with acoating or shell comprising a surface-altering agent that facilitatesmobility of the particle in mucus. As described in more detail below,the surface-altering agent may comprise a polymer (e.g., a synthetic ora natural polymer) having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of thepolymer. The molecular weight and/or degree of hydrolysis of the polymermay be chosen to impart certain transport characteristics to theparticles, such as increased transport through mucus. In certainembodiments, the surface-altering agent may comprise a triblockcopolymer comprising a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobicblock)-(hydrophilic block) configuration. The molecular weights of eachone of the blocks may be chosen to impart certain transportcharacteristics to the particles, such as increased transport throughmucus. In some embodiments, at least one particle of the inventionincludes a core and a coating surrounding the core. A particle includinga core and a coating on the core is referred to as a “coated particle.”In certain embodiments, at least one particle of the invention includesa core but not a coating on the core. A particle including a core butnot a coating on the core is referred to as an “uncoated particle.”

Non-limiting examples of particles are now provided. As shown in theillustrative embodiment of FIG. 1, a particle 10 includes a core 16(which may be in the form of a particle, referred to herein as a core)and a coating 20 surrounding the core. In some embodiments, asubstantial portion of the core is formed of one or more solidpharmaceutical agents (e.g., a compound of the invention) that can leadto certain beneficial and/or therapeutic effects. The core may be, forexample, a nanocrystal (i.e., a nanocrystalline particle) of apharmaceutical agent. In certain embodiments, the core includes apolymeric carrier, optionally with one or more pharmaceutical agentsencapsulated or otherwise associated with the core. In certainembodiments, the core includes a lipid, protein, gel, liquid, and/oranother suitable material to be delivered to a subject. The coreincludes a surface 24 to which one or more surface-altering agents canbe attached. In some embodiments, core 16 is surrounded by coating 20,which includes an inner surface 28 and an outer surface 32. The coatingmay be formed, at least in part, of one or more surface-altering agents34, such as a polymer (e.g., a block copolymer and/or a polymer havingpendant hydroxyl groups), which may associate with surface 24 of thecore. Surface-altering agent 34 may be associated with the core particleby, for example, being covalently attached to the core particle,non-covalently attached to the core particle, adsorbed to the core, orattached to the core through ionic interactions, hydrophobic and/orhydrophilic interactions, electrostatic interactions, van der Waalsinteractions, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, thesurface-altering agents, or portions thereof, are chosen to facilitatetransport of the particle through or into a mucosal barrier (e.g., mucusor a mucosal membrane). In certain embodiments described herein, one ormore surface-altering agents 34 are oriented in a particularconfiguration in the coating. In some embodiments, in which asurface-altering agent is a triblock copolymer, such as a triblockcopolymer having a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilicblock) configuration, a hydrophobic block may be oriented towards thesurface of the core, and hydrophilic blocks may be oriented away fromthe core surface (e.g., towards the exterior of the particle). Thehydrophilic blocks may have characteristics that facilitate transport ofthe particle through a mucosal barrier, as described in more detailbelow.

Particle 10 may optionally include one or more components 40 such astargeting moieties, proteins, nucleic acids, and bioactive agents whichmay optionally impart specificity to the particle. For example, atargeting agent or molecule (e.g., a protein, nucleic acid, nucleic acidanalog, carbohydrate, or small molecule), if present, may aid indirecting the particle to a specific location in the subject's body. Thelocation may be, for example, a tissue, a particular cell type, or asubcellular compartment. One or more components 40, if present, may beassociated with the core, the coating, or both; e.g., they may beassociated with surface 24 of the core, inner surface 28 of the coating,outer surface 32 of the coating, and/or embedded in the coating. The oneor more components 40 may be associated through covalent bonds orabsorption, or attached through ionic interactions, hydrophobic, and/orhydrophilic interactions, electrostatic interactions, van der Waalsinteractions, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a componentmay be attached (e.g., covalently) to one or more of thesurface-altering agents of the particle using methods known to thoseskilled in the art.

It should be understood that components and configurations other thanthose shown in FIG. 1 or described herein may be suitable for certainparticles and pharmaceutical compositions, and that not all of thecomponents shown in FIG. 1 are necessarily present in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, particle 10, when introduced into a subject, mayinteract with one or more components in the subject such as mucus,cells, tissues, organs, particles, fluids (e.g., blood), microorganisms,and portions or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the coatingof particle 10 can be designed to include surface-altering agents orother components with properties that allow favorable interactions(e.g., transport, binding, and adsorption) with one or more materialsfrom the subject. For example, the coating may include surface-alteringagents or other components having a certain hydrophilicity,hydrophobicity, surface charge, functional group, specificity forbinding, and/or density to facilitate or reduce particular interactionsin the subject. One example is choosing a hydrophilicity,hydrophobicity, surface charge, functional group, specificity forbinding, and/or density of one or more surface-altering agents to reducethe physical and/or chemical interactions between the particle and mucusof the subject, so as to enhance the mobility of the particle throughmucus. Other examples are described in more detail below.

In some embodiments, once a particle is successfully transported intoand/or across a mucosal barrier (e.g., mucus or a mucosal membrane) in asubject, further interactions between the particle and the subject maytake place. Interactions may take place through the coating and/or thecore and may involve, for example, the exchange of materials (e.g.,pharmaceutical agents, therapeutic agents, proteins, peptides,polypeptides, nucleic acids, and nutrients) from the one or morecomponents of the subject to particle 10, and/or from particle 10 to theone or more components of the subject. In some embodiments, in which thecore comprises a pharmaceutical agent, the conversion, breakdown,release, and/or transport of the pharmaceutical agent from the particlecan lead to certain beneficial and/or therapeutic effects in thesubject. Therefore, the particles of the invention can be used for thetreatment and/or prevention of certain diseases. When the diseases arecaused by pathogenic microorgansims, similar interactions between theparticle and the microorgansims may also take place.

Examples for the use of the particles of the invention are providedbelow in the context of being suitable for administration to a mucosalbarrier (e.g., mucus or a mucosal membrane) in a subject. It should beappreciated that while many of the embodiments herein are described inthis context, and in the context of providing a benefit for diseasesthat involve transport of materials across a mucosal barrier, theinvention is not limited as such, and the particles, pharmaceuticalcompositions, and kits of the invention may be used to treat and/orprevent other diseases.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the inventioncomprise MPPs that include a compound of the invention and optionally atleast one additional pharmaceutical agent, each of which is associatedwith polymer carriers via encapsulation or other processes. In otherembodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention compriseMPPs without any polymeric carriers or with minimal use of polymericcarriers. Polymer-based MPPs may have one or more inherent limitationsin some embodiments. In particular, in light of drug deliveryapplications, these limitations may include one or more of thefollowing. A) Low drug encapsulation efficiency and low drug loading:encapsulation of drugs into polymeric particles is often inefficient, asgenerally less than 10% of the total amount of drug used getsencapsulated into particles during manufacturing; additionally, drugloadings above 50% are rarely achieved. B) Convenience of usage:pharmaceutical compositions based on drug-loaded polymeric particles, ingeneral, typically need to be stored as dry powder to avoid prematuredrug release and thus require either point-of-use re-constitution or asophisticated dosing device. C) Biocompatibility: accumulation of slowlydegrading polymer carriers following repeated dosing and their toxicityover the long term present a major concern for polymeric drug carriers.D) Chemical and physical stability: polymer degradation may compromisestability of encapsulated drugs. In many encapsulation processes, thedrug undergoes a transition from a solution phase to a solid phase,which is not well-controlled in terms of physical form of the emergingsolid phase (i.e., amorphous vs. crystalline vs. crystallinepolymorphs); this is a concern for multiple aspects of pharmaceuticalcomposition performance, including physical and chemical stability andrelease kinetics. E) Manufacturing complexity: manufacturing, especiallyscalability, of drug-loaded polymeric MPPs is a fairly complex processthat may involve multiple steps and a considerable amount of toxicorganic solvents. Therefore, by avoiding or minimizing the need toencapsulate pharmaceutical agents into polymeric carriers, certainlimitations of polymeric MPPs with respect to drug loading, convenienceof usage, biocompatibility, stability, and/or complexity ofmanufacturing, may be addressed. The methods and compositions describedherein may facilitate clinical development of the mucus-penetratingparticle technology.

It should be appreciated, however, that in other embodiments,pharmaceutical agents may be associated with polymer carriers viaencapsulation or other processes. Thus, the description provided hereinis not limited in this respect. For instance, despite theabove-mentioned drawbacks of certain mucus-penetrating particlesincluding a polymeric carrier, in certain embodiments such particles maybe preferred. For example, it may be preferable to use polymer carriersfor controlled release purposes and/or for encapsulating certainpharmaceutical agents that are difficult to formulate into particles. Assuch, in some embodiments described herein, particles that include apolymer carrier are described.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the inventioninvolve the use of poly(vinyl alcohols) (PVAs) to aid particle transportin mucus. The pharmaceutical compositions may involve making MPPs orMPCs by, for example, an emulsification process in the presence ofspecific PVAs. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositionsand methods involve making MPPs or MPCs from pre-fabricated particles bynon-covalent coating with specific PVAs. In some embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions and methods involve making MPPs in thepresence of specific PVAs without any polymeric carriers or with minimaluse of polymeric carriers. It should be appreciated, however, that inother embodiments, polymeric carriers can be used.

PVA is a water-soluble non-ionic synthetic polymer. Due to its surfaceactive properties, PVA is widely used in the food and drug industries asa stabilizing agent for emulsions and, in particular, to enableencapsulation of a wide variety of compounds by emulsificationtechniques. PVA has the “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) statuswith the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and has been used inauricular, intramuscular, intraocular, intravitreal, iontophoretic,ophthalmic, oral, topical, and transdermal drug products and/or drugdelivery systems.

In certain previous studies, many have described PVA as a mucoadhesivepolymer, suggesting that incorporating PVA in the particle formulationprocess leads to particles that are strongly mucoadhesive. Surprisingly,and contrary to the established opinion that PVA is a mucoadhesivepolymer, it is discovered that pharmaceutical compositions of theinvention utilizing specific PVA grades in fact aid particle transportin mucus and are not mucoadhesive in certain applications of theinvention. Specifically, MPPs can be prepared by tailoring the degree ofhydrolysis and/or molecular weight of the PVA, which was previouslyunknown. This discovery significantly broadens the arsenal of techniquesand ingredients applicable for manufacturing MPPs.

In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the inventionand the methods of making the particles and pharmaceutical compositionsof the invention involve PVAs in conjunction with other polymers or donot involve PVAs at all. For example, PEG and/or PLURONICS® may beincluded in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention and methodsof making the particles and pharmaceutical compositions of theinvention, in addition to or in replace of PVAs. Other polymers, such asthose described herein, may also be used.

Core of the Particles

A particle of the invention includes a core. As described herein inreference to FIG. 1, particle 10 may include a core 16. The core of theinventive particles may be formed of any suitable material, such as anorganic material, inorganic material, polymer, lipid, protein, orcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, the core is a solid. Thesolid may be, for example, a crystalline, semi-crystalline, or amorphoussolid, such as a crystalline, semi-crystalline, or amorphous solidpharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention), or a saltthereof. In certain embodiments, the core is a gel or liquid (e.g., anoil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion).

One or more pharmaceutical agents may be present in the core. Thepharmaceutical agent may be present in the core in any suitable amount,e.g., at least about 80 wt % and less than about 100 wt % of the core).Other ranges are also possible.

Particles that are formed by encapsulating pharmaceutical agents intopolymeric carriers typically have a low loading of the pharmaceuticalagent (e.g., less than about 50 wt % of the core of the particles). Incontrast, in certain embodiments, the loading of the pharmaceuticalagent in the core of the inventive particles is high (e.g., at leastabout 50 wt % of the core). A high drug loading is an advantage for drugdelivery, since a high drug loading often means that fewer numbers ofparticles may be needed to achieve a desired effect. As describedherein, in other embodiments in which a relatively high amount of apolymer or other material forms the core, the loading of thepharmaceutical agent in the core is low (e.g., less than about 50 wt %of the core).

The core may comprise a solid material having various aqueoussolubilities and/or various solubilities in a coating solution (asolution in which the solid material is being coated with asurface-altering agent). For example, the solid material may have anaqueous solubility (or a solubility in a coating solution) of at leastabout 10 pg/mL and less than about or equal to about 1 mg/mL). Otherranges are also possible. The solid material may have these or otherranges of aqueous solubilities at any point throughout the pH range(e.g., from pH 1 to pH 14).

In some embodiments, the core may be formed of a material within one ofthe ranges of solubilities classified by the U.S. PharmacopeiaConvention: e.g., very soluble: >1,000 mg/mL; freely soluble: 100-1,000mg/mL; soluble: 33-100 mg/mL; sparingly soluble: 10-33 mg/mL; slightlysoluble: 1-10 mg/mL; very slightly soluble: 0.1-1 mg/mL; and practicallyinsoluble: <0.1 mg/mL.

In certain embodiments, the core of the particles of the invention ishydrophobic. In certain embodiments, the core is substantiallyhydrophobic. In certain embodiments, the core is hydrophilic. In certainembodiments, the core is substantially hydrophilic.

The hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of a material (e.g., a materialused to form the core of the particles of the invention) can bedetermined by measuring the contact angle of a water droplet on a planarsurface of the material, e.g., using an instrument such as a contactangle goniometer and a packed powder of the material. In someembodiments, the material used to form the core has a contact angle ofat least about 20 degrees, at least about 30 degrees, at least about 40degrees, at least about 50 degrees, at least about 60 degrees, at leastabout 70 degrees, at least about 80 degrees, at least about 90 degrees,at least about 100 degrees, at least about 110 degrees, at least about120 degrees, or at least about 130 degrees. In some embodiments, thematerial used to form the core has a contact angle of less than about160 degrees, less than about 150 degrees, less than about 140 degrees,less than about 130 degrees, less than about 120 degrees, less thanabout 110 degrees, less than about 100 degrees, less than about 90degrees, less than about 80 degrees, or less than about 70 degrees.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., acontact angle of at least about 30 degrees and less than about 120degrees). Other ranges are also possible.

Contact angle measurements can be made using a variety of techniques,such as a static contact angle measurement between a pellet of thestarting material which will be used to form the core and a bead ofwater. The material used to form the core is a fine powder. In order toform a surface on which to make measurements, the powder is packed usinga 7 mm pellet die set from International Crystal Labs. The material isadded to the die and pressure is applied to pack the powder into apellet. No pellet press or high pressure is used. The pellet is thensuspended for testing so that the top and bottom of the pellet (definedas the surface water is added to and the opposite parallel surfacerespectively) are not in contact with any surface. This is done by notfully removing the pellet from the collar of the die set. The pellettherefore touches the collar on the sides and makes no contact on thetop or bottom. For contact angle measurements, water is added to thesurface of the pellet until a bead of water with a steady contact angleover 30 seconds is obtained. The water is added into the bead of waterby submerging or contacting the tip of the pipette or syringe used foraddition to the bead of water. Once a stable bead of water is obtained,an image is taken and the contact angle is measured using standardpractices.

In some embodiments, the core includes one or more organic materials,such as a synthetic polymer and/or natural polymer. Examples ofsynthetic polymers include non-degradable polymers (e.g.,polymethacrylate) and degradable polymers (e.g., polylactic acid andpolyglycolic acid), and copolymers thereof. Examples of natural polymersinclude hyaluronic acid, chitosan, and collagen. Other examples ofpolymers that may be suitable for portions of the core include thosesuitable for forming coatings on particles, as described herein. In somecases, the one or more polymers present in the core may be used toencapsulate or adsorb one or more pharmaceutical agents.

When a polymer is present in the core, the polymer may be present in thecore in any suitable amount, e.g., less than about 100 wt %, less thanabout 80 wt %, less than about 60 wt %, less than about 50 wt %, lessthan about 40 wt %, less than about 30 wt %, less than about 20 wt %,less than about 10 wt %, less than about 5 wt %, or less than about 1 wt%. In some cases, the polymer may be present in an amount of at leastabout 1 wt %, at least about 5 wt %, at least about 10 wt %, at leastabout 20 wt %, at least about 30 wt %, at least about 40 wt %, at leastabout 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, or atleast about 99 wt % in the core. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., present in an amount of at least about 1wt % and less than about 20 wt %). Other ranges are also possible. Insome embodiments, the core is substantially free of a polymericcomponent.

In certain embodiments, a core includes a pharmaceutical agentcomprising a lipid and/or a protein.

The core may have any suitable shape and/or size. For instance, the coremay be substantially spherical, non-spherical, oval, rod-shaped,pyramidal, cube-like, disk-shaped, wire-like, or irregularly shaped. Thecore may have a largest or smallest cross-sectional dimension of, forexample, less than about 10 μm, less than about 3 μm, less than about 1μm, less than about 500 nm, less than 400 nm, less than 300 nm, lessthan about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 30 nm, orless than about 10 nm. In some cases, the core may have a largest orsmallest cross-sectional dimension of, for example, at least about 10nm, at least about 30 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 200 nm,at least about 300 nm, at least about 400 nm, at least about 500 nm, atleast about 1 μm, or at least about 3 μm. Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., a largest or smallestcross-sectional dimension of at least about 30 nm and less than about500 nm). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the sizesof the cores formed by a process described herein have a Gaussian-typedistribution. Unless indicated otherwise, the measurements of theparticle sizes or core sizes refer to the smallest cross-sectionaldimension.

Techniques to determine sizes (e.g., smallest or largest cross-sectionaldimensions) of particles are known in the art. Examples of suitabletechniques include dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electronmicroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electroresistance counting andlaser diffraction. Although many methods for determining sizes ofparticles are known, the sizes described herein (e.g., average particlesizes and thicknesses) refer to ones measured by DLS.

Coating of the Particles

A particle of the invention may include a coating. An inventive particleincluding a coating may be referred to as a coated particle of theinvention. An inventive particle not including a coating may be referredto as an uncoated particle of the invention. As shown in the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 1, core 16 may be surrounded by coating 20comprising one or more surface-altering agents. In some embodiments, thecoating is formed of one or more surface-altering agents or othermolecules disposed on the surface of the core. The particular chemicalmakeup and/or components of the coating and surface-altering agent(s)can be chosen so as to impart certain functionality to the particles,such as enhanced transport through mucosal barriers.

It should be understood that a coating which surrounds a core need notcompletely surround the core, although such embodiments may be possible.For example, the coating may surround at least about 10%, at least about30%, at least about 50%, at least about 70%, at least about 90%, or atleast about 99% of the surface area of a core. In some cases, thecoating substantially surrounds a core. In other cases, the coatingcompletely surrounds a core. In other embodiments, a coating surroundsless than about 100%, less than about 90%, less than about 70%, or lessthan about 50% of the surface area of a core. Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., surrounding at least70% and less than 100% of the surface area of a core).

The material of the coating may be distributed evenly across a surfaceof the core in some cases, and unevenly in other cases. For example, thecoating may include portions (e.g., holes) that do not include anymaterial. If desired, the coating may be designed to allow penetrationand/or transport of certain molecules and components into or out of thecoating, but may prevent penetration and/or transport of other moleculesand components into or out of the coating. The ability of certainmolecules to penetrate and/or be transported into and/or across acoating may depend on, for example, the packing density of thesurface-altering agents forming the coating and the chemical andphysical properties of the components forming the coating. As describedherein, the coating may include one layer of material (i.e., amonolayer) or multilayers of materials. A single type or multiple typesof surface-altering agent may be present.

The coating of particles of the invention can have any suitablethickness. For example, the coating may have an average thickness of atleast about 1 nm, at least about 3 nm, at least about 10 nm, at leastabout 30 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 300 nm, at leastabout 400 nm, at least about 1 μm, or at least about 3 μm. In somecases, the average thickness of the coating is less than about 3 μm,less than about 1 μm, less than about 300 nm, less than about 100 nm,less than about 30 nm, less than about 10 nm, or less than about 3 nm.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., anaverage thickness of at least about 1 nm and less than about 100 nm).Other ranges are also possible. For particles having multiple coatings,each coating may have one of the thicknesses described herein.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may allow for thecoating of the particles of the invention with hydrophilicsurface-altering moieties without requiring covalent association of thesurface-altering moieties to the surface of the core. In someembodiments, the core having a hydrophobic surface is coated with apolymer described herein, thereby causing a plurality ofsurface-altering moieties to be on the surface of the core withoutsubstantially altering the characteristics of the core itself. Forexample, the surface altering agent may be present on (e.g., adsorbedto) the outer surface of the core. In other embodiments, asurface-altering agent is covalently linked to the core.

In certain embodiments in which the surface-altering agent is adsorbedonto a surface of the core, the surface-altering agent may be inequilibrium with other molecules of the surface-altering agent insolution, optionally with other components (e.g., in a pharmaceuticalcomposition). In some cases, the adsorbed surface-altering agent may bepresent on the surface of the core at a density described herein. Thedensity may be an average density as the surface altering agent is inequilibrium with other components in solution.

The coating and/or surface-altering agent of the particles of theinvention may comprise any suitable material, such as a hydrophobicmaterial, a hydrophilic material, and/or an amphiphilic material. Insome embodiments, the coating includes a polymer. In certainembodiments, the polymer is a synthetic polymer (i.e., a polymer notproduced in nature). In other embodiments, the polymer is a naturalpolymer (e.g., a protein, polysaccharide, or rubber). In certainembodiments, the polymer is a surface active polymer. In certainembodiments, the polymer is a non-ionic polymer. In certain embodiments,the polymer is a linear synthetic non-ionic polymer. In certainembodiments, the polymer is a non-ionic block copolymer. The polymer maybe a copolymer. In certain embodiments, one repeat unit of the copolymeris relatively hydrophobic and another repeat unit of the copolymer isrelatively hydrophilic. The copolymer may be, for example, a diblock,triblock, alternating, or random copolymer. The polymer may be chargedor uncharged.

In some embodiments, the coating of the particles of the inventioncomprises a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on thebackbone of the polymer. Examples of the synthetic polymer are asdescribed herein. Without wishing to be bound by theory, a particleincluding a coating comprising a synthetic polymer having pendanthydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer may have reducedmucoadhesion as compared to a control particle due to, at least in part,the display of a plurality of hydroxyl groups on the particle surface.One possible mechanism for the reduced mucoadhesion is that the hydroxylgroups alter the microenvironment of the particle, for example, byordering water and other molecules in the particle/mucus environment. Anadditional or alternative possible mechanism is that the hydroxyl groupsshield the adhesive domains of the mucin fibers, thereby reducingparticle adhesion and speeding up particle transport.

Moreover, the ability of a particle coated with a synthetic polymerhaving pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer to bemucus penetrating may also depend, at least in part, on the degree ofhydrolysis of the polymer. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic portionsof the polymer (e.g., portions of the polymer that are not hydrolyzed)allow the polymer to be adhered to the surface of the core (e.g., in thecase that the surface of the core is hydrophobic), thus allowing for astrong association between the core and polymer. Surprisingly, it hasbeen found that, in some embodiments involving PVA as thesurface-altering agent, too high of a degree of hydrolysis does notallow for sufficient adhesion between the PVA and the core (e.g., in thecase of the core being hydrophobic), and thus, the particles coated withsuch a polymer generally do not exhibit sufficient reduced mucoadhesion.In some embodiments, too low of a degree of hydrolysis does not enhanceparticle transport in mucus, perhaps due to the lower amounts ofhydroxyl groups available for altering the microenvironment of theparticle and/or shielding the adhesive domains of the mucin fibers.

A synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone ofthe polymer may have any suitable degree of hydrolysis (and, therefore,varying amounts of hydroxyl groups). The appropriate level of hydrolysismay depend on additional factors, such as the molecular weight of thepolymer, the pharmaceutical composition of the core, and thehydrophobicity of the core. In some embodiments, the synthetic polymeris at least about 30% hydrolyzed, at least about 40% hydrolyzed, atleast about 50% hydrolyzed, at least about 60% hydrolyzed, at leastabout 70% hydrolyzed, at least about 80% hydrolyzed, at least about 90%hydrolyzed, or at least about 95% hydrolyzed. In some embodiments, thesynthetic polymer is less than about 100% hydrolyzed, less than about95% hydrolyzed, less than about 90% hydrolyzed, less than about 80%hydrolyzed, less than about 70% hydrolyzed, or less than about 60%hydrolyzed. Combinations of the above-mentioned ranges are also possible(e.g., a synthetic polymer that is at least about 80% and less thanabout 95% hydrolyzed). Other ranges are also possible.

The molecular weight of the synthetic polymer described herein (e.g.,one having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer) maybe selected so as to reduce the mucoadhesion of a core and to ensuresufficient association of the polymer with the core. In certainembodiments, the molecular weight of the synthetic polymer is at leastabout 1 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about8 kDa, at least about 9 kDa, at least about 10 kDa, at least about 12kDa, at least about 15 kDa at least about 20 kDa, at least about 25 kDa,at least about 30 kDa, at least about 40 kDa, at least about 50 kDa, atleast about 60 kDa, at least about 70 kDa, at least about 80 kDa, atleast about 90 kDa, at least about 100 kDa at least about 110 kDa, atleast about 120 kDa, at least about 130 kDa, at least about 140 kDa, atleast about 150 kDa, at least about 200 kDa, at least about 500 kDa, orat least about 1000 kDa. In some embodiments, the molecular weight ofthe synthetic polymer is less than about 1000 kDa, less than about 500kDa, less than about 200 kDa, less than about, less than about 150 kDa,less than about 130 kDa, less than about 120 kDa, less than about 100kDa, less than about 85 kDa, less than about 70 kDa, less than about 65kDa, less than about 60 kDa, less than about 50 kDa, or less than about40 kDa, less than about 30 kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about15 kDa, or less than about 10 kDa. Combinations of the above-mentionedranges are also possible (e.g., a molecular weight of at least about 10kDa and less than about 30 kDa). The above-mentioned molecular weightranges can also be combined with the above-mentioned hydrolysis rangesto form suitable polymers.

In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer described herein is orcomprises PVA. In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer describedherein is or comprises partially hydrolyzed PVA. Partially hydrolyzedPVA includes two types of repeating units: vinyl alcohol units andresidual vinyl acetate units. The vinyl alcohol units are relativelyhydrophilic, and the vinyl acetate units are relatively hydrophobic. Insome instances, the sequence distribution of vinyl alcohol units andvinyl acetate units is blocky. For example, a series of vinyl alcoholunits may be followed by a series of vinyl acetate units, and followedby more vinyl alcohol units to form a polymer having a mixedblock-copolymer type arrangement, with units distributed in a blockymanner. In certain embodiments, the repeat units form a copolymer, e.g.,a diblock, triblock, alternating, or random copolymer. Polymers otherthan PVA may also have these configurations of hydrophilic units andhydrophobic units.

In some embodiments, the hydrophilic units of the synthetic polymerdescribed herein are substantially present at the outer surface of theparticles of the invention. For example, the hydrophilic units may forma majority of the outer surface of the coating and may help stabilizethe particles in an aqueous solution containing the particles. Thehydrophobic units may be substantially present in the interior of thecoating and/or at the surface of the core, e.g., to facilitateattachment of the coating to the core.

The molar fraction of the relatively hydrophilic units and therelatively hydrophobic units of the synthetic polymer described hereinmay be selected so as to reduce the mucoadhesion of a core and to ensuresufficient association of the polymer with the core, respectively. Asdescribed herein, the molar fraction of the hydrophobic units of thepolymer may be chosen such that adequate association of the polymer withthe core occurs, thereby increasing the likelihood that the polymerremains adhered to the core. The molar fraction of the relativelyhydrophilic units to the relatively hydrophobic units of the syntheticpolymer may be, for example, at least 0.5:1, at least 1:1, at least 2:1,at least 3:1, at least 5:1, at least 10:1, at least 20:1, at least 30:1,at least 50:1, or at least 100:1. In some embodiments, the molarfraction of the relatively hydrophilic units to the relativelyhydrophobic units of the synthetic polymer may be, for example, lessthan 100:1, less than 50:1, less than 30:1, less than 20:1, less than10:1, less than 5:1, less than 3:1, less than 2:1, or less than 1:1.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., aratio of at least 1:1 and less than 50:1). Other ranges are alsopossible.

The molecular weight of the PVA polymer may also be tailored to increasethe effectiveness of the polymer to render particles mucus penetrating.Examples of PVA polymers having various molecular weights and degree ofhydrolysis are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Molecular weight (MW) and degree of hydrolysis of variouspoly(vinyl alcohols) (PVAs).^(a) MW Hydrolysis degree PVA (kDa) (%) 2K752 75-79 9K80  9-10 80 13K87 13-23 87-89 13K98 13-23 98 31K87 31-50 87-8931K98 31-50 98-99 57K86 57-60 86-89 85K87  85-124 87-89 85K99  85-12499+ 95K95 95 95 105K80 104 80 130K87 130 87-89 ^(a)The values of themolecular weight and hydrolysis degree of the PVAs were provided by themanufacturers of the PVAs.

In certain embodiments, the synthetic polymer is represented by theformula:

wherein:

u is an integer between 0 and 22730, inclusive; and

v is an integer between 0 and 11630, inclusive.

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention include a coatingcomprising a block copolymer having a relatively hydrophilic block and arelatively hydrophobic block. In some cases, the hydrophilic blocks maybe substantially present at the outer surface of the particle. Forexample, the hydrophilic blocks may form a majority of the outer surfaceof the coating and may help stabilize the particle in an aqueoussolution containing the particle. The hydrophobic block may besubstantially present in the interior of the coating and/or at thesurface of the core, e.g., to facilitate attachment of the coating tothe core. In some embodiments, the coating comprises a surface-alteringagent including a triblock copolymer, wherein the triblock copolymercomprises a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block)configuration. Diblock copolymers having a (hydrophilicblock)-(hydrophobic block) configuration are also possible. Combinationsof block copolymers with other polymers suitable for use as coatings arealso possible. Non-linear block configurations are also possible such asin comb, brush, or star copolymers. In some embodiments, the relativelyhydrophilic block includes a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxylgroups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA).

The molecular weight of the hydrophilic blocks and the hydrophobicblocks of the block copolymers described herein may be selected so as toreduce the mucoadhesion of a core and to ensure sufficient associationof the block copolymer with the core, respectively. The molecular weightof the hydrophobic block of the block copolymer may be chosen such thatadequate association of the block copolymer with the core occurs,thereby increasing the likelihood that the block copolymer remainsadhered to the core.

In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of orcombined blocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophobic blocks of ablock copolymer is at least about 0.5 kDa, at least about 1 kDa, atleast about 1.8 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, atleast about 4 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about 6 kDa, at leastabout 10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa, at leastabout 20 kDa, or at least about 50 kDa, at least about 60 kDa, at leastabout 70 kDa, at least about 80 kDa, at least about 90 kDa, at leastabout 100 kDa at least about 110 kDa, at least about 120 kDa, at leastabout 130 kDa, at least about 140 kDa, at least about 150 kDa, at leastabout 200 kDa, at least about 500 kDa, or at least about 1000 kDa. Insome embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combinedblocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophobic blocks is less thanabout 1000 kDa, less than about 500 kDa, less than about 200 kDa, lessthan about 150 kDa, less than about 140 kDa, less than about 130 kDa,less than about 120 kDa, less than about 110 kDa, less than about 100kDa, less than about 90 kDa, less than about 80 kDa, less than about 50kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about 15 kDa, less than about 13kDa, less than about 12 kDa, less than about 10 kDa, less than about 8kDa, or less than about 6 kDa. Combinations of the above-mentionedranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 3 kDa and less than about15 kDa). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the combined relatively hydrophilic blocks (e.g.,two hydrophilic blocks of a triblock copolymer) of a block copolymer(e.g., a triblock copolymer) constitute at least about 10 wt %, at leastabout 20 wt %, at least about 30 wt %, at least about 40 wt %, at leastabout 50 wt %, at least about 60 wt %, or at least about 70 wt % of theblock copolymer. In some embodiments, the combined (one or more)relatively hydrophilic blocks of a block copolymer constitute less thanabout 90 wt %, less than about 80 wt %, less than about 60 wt %, lessthan about 50 wt %, or less than about 40 wt % of the block copolymer.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., atleast about 30 wt % and less than about 70 wt %). Other ranges are alsopossible.

In some embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combinedblocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophilic blocks of the blockcopolymer may be at least about 0.5 kDa, at least about 1 kDa, at leastabout 1.8 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at leastabout 4 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about 6 kDa, at least about10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa, at least about 20kDa, or at least about 50 kDa, at least about 60 kDa, at least about 70kDa, at least about 80 kDa, at least about 90 kDa, at least about 100kDa at least about 110 kDa, at least about 120 kDa, at least about 130kDa, at least about 140 kDa, at least about 150 kDa, at least about 200kDa, at least about 500 kDa, or at least about 1000 kDa. In certainembodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combined blocks ofthe (one or more) relatively hydrophilic blocks is less than about 1000kDa, less than about 500 kDa, less than about 200 kDa, less than about150 kDa, less than about 140 kDa, less than about 130 kDa, less thanabout 120 kDa, less than about 110 kDa, less than about 100 kDa, lessthan about 90 kDa, less than about 80 kDa, less than about 50 kDa, lessthan about 20 kDa, less than about 15 kDa, less than about 13 kDa, lessthan about 12 kDa, less than about 10 kDa, less than about 8 kDa, lessthan about 6 kDa, less than about 5 kDa, less than about 3 kDa, lessthan about 2 kDa, or less than about 1 kDa. Combinations of theabove-mentioned ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 0.5 kDaand less than about 3 kDa). Other ranges are also possible. Inembodiments in which two hydrophilic blocks flank a hydrophobic block,the molecular weights of the two hydrophilic blocks may be substantiallythe same or different.

In certain embodiments, the polymer of the surface-altering agentincludes a polyether portion. In certain embodiments, the polymerincludes a polyalkylether portion. In certain embodiments, the polymerincludes polyethylene glycol (PEG) tails. In certain embodiments, thepolymer includes a polypropylene glycol as the central portion. Incertain embodiments, the polymer includes polybutylene glycol as thecentral portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer includespolypentylene glycol as the central portion. In certain embodiments, thepolymer includes polyhexylene glycol as the central portion. In certainembodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of one of the polymersdescribed herein. In some embodiments, a diblock or triblock copolymercomprises a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on thebackbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA) as one or more of the blocks (withvarying degrees of hydrolysis and varying molecular weights as describedherein). The synthetic polymer blocks may form the central portion orend portions of the block copolymer.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of apolyalkyl ether (e.g., polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol) andanother polymer (e.g., a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxylgroups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA). In certainembodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of a polyalkyl etherand another polyalkyl ether. In certain embodiments, the polymer is atriblock copolymer of polyethylene glycol and another polyalkyl ether.In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer ofpolypropylene glycol and another polyalkyl ether. In certainembodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer with at least one unitof polyalkyl ether. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblockcopolymer of two different polyalkyl ethers. In certain embodiments, thepolymer is a triblock copolymer including a polyethylene glycol unit. Incertain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer including apolypropylene glycol unit. In certain embodiments, the polymer is atriblock copolymer of a more hydrophobic unit flanked by two morehydrophilic units. In certain embodiments, the hydrophilic units are thesame type of polymer. In some embodiments, the hydrophilic units includea synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone ofthe polymer (e.g., PVA). In certain embodiments, the polymer includes apolypropylene glycol unit flanked by two more hydrophilic units. Incertain embodiments, the polymer includes two polyethylene glycol unitsflanking a more hydrophobic unit. In certain embodiments, the polymer isa triblock copolymer with a polypropylene glycol unit flanked by twopolyethylene glycol units. The molecular weights of the two blocksflanking the central block may be substantially the same or different.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is of the formula:

wherein each instance of p is independently an integer between 2 and1140, inclusive; and q is an integer between 2 and 1730, inclusive. Incertain embodiments, each instance of p is independently an integerbetween 10 and 170, inclusive. In certain embodiments, q is an integerbetween 5 and 70 inclusive. In certain embodiments, each instance of pis independently at least 2 times of q, 3 times of q, or 4 times of q.

In certain embodiments, the surface-altering agent comprises a(poly(ethylene glycol))-(poly(propylene oxide))-(poly(ethylene glycol))triblock copolymer (PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer), present in thecoating alone or in combination with another polymer such as a syntheticpolymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer(e.g., PVA). The molecular weights of the PEG and PPO segments of thePEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer may be selected so as to reduce themucoadhesion of the particles, as described herein. Without wishing tobe bound by any theory, the particles of the invention having a coatingcomprising a PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer may have reducedmucoadhesion as compared to control particles due to, at least in part,the PEG segments on the surface of the particles of the invention. ThePPO segment may be adhered to the surface of the core (e.g., in the caseof the surface of the core being hydrophobic), thus allowing for astrong association between the core and the triblock copolymer. In someembodiments, the PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer is associated with thecore through non-covalent interactions. For purposes of comparison, thecontrol particle may be, for example, a carboxylate-modified polystyreneparticle of similar size as the particle of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the surface-altering agent includes a polymercomprising a poloxamer, having the trade name PLURONIC®. PLURONIC®polymers that may be useful in the embodiments described herein include,but are not limited to, F127, F38, F108, F68, F77, F87, F88, F98, L101,L121, L31, L35, L43, L44, L61, L62, L64, L81, L92, N3, P103, P104, P105,P123, P65, P84, and P85. Examples of molecular weights of certainPLURONIC® polymers are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Molecular weight (MW) of PLUIRONIC ® polymers MW of the MW ofthe Average MW PPO portion PEG portion PLURONIC ® (Da) (Da) PEG wt %(Da) F127 12000 3600 70 8400 L44 2000 1200 40 800 L81 2667 2400 10 267L101 3333 3000 10 333 P65 3600 1800 50 1800 L121 4000 3600 10 400 P1034286 3000 30 1286 F38 4500 900 80 3600 P123 5143 3600 30 1543 P105 60003000 50 3000 F87 8000 2400 70 5600 F68 9000 1800 80 7200 P123 5750 403030 1730

Although other ranges may be possible, in some embodiments, thehydrophobic block of the PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer has one of themolecular weights described above (e.g., at least about 3 kDa and lessthan about 15 kDa), and the combined hydrophilic blocks have a weightpercentage with respect to the polymer in one of the ranges describedabove (e.g., at least about 15 wt %, at least about 20 wt %, at leastabout 25 wt %, or at least about 30 wt %, and less than about 80 wt %).Certain PLURONIC® polymers that fall within these criteria include, forexample, F127, F108, P105, and P103. In certain embodiments, theparticles of the invention including PLURONIC® polymers that fall withinthese criteria are more mucus penetrating than particles includingPLURONIC® polymers that did not fall within these criteria. Materialsthat do not render the particles mucus penetrating also include certainpolymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidones (PVP/KOLLIDON), polyvinylalcohol-polyethylene glycol graft-copolymer (KOLLICOAT IR), andhydroxypropyl methylcellulose (METHOCEL); oligomers such as TWEEN 20,TWEEN 80, SOLUTOL HS 15, TRITON X100, tyloxapol, and CREMOPHOR RH 40;and small molecules such as SPAN 20, SPAN 80, octyl glucoside,cetytrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS).

Although much of the description herein may involve coatings comprisinga (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block)configuration (e.g., a PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer) or coatingscomprising a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups, it shouldbe appreciated that the coatings are not limited to these configurationsand materials and that other configurations and materials are possible.

Furthermore, although many of the embodiments described herein involve asingle coating, in other embodiments, a particle may include more thanone coating (e.g., at least two, three, four, five, or more coatings),and each coating need not be formed of or comprise a mucus penetratingmaterial. In some embodiments, an intermediate coating (i.e., a coatingbetween the core surface and an outer coating) may include a polymerthat facilitates attachment of an outer coating to the core surface. Insome embodiments, an outer coating of a particle includes a polymercomprising a material that facilitates the transport of the particlethrough mucus.

The coating (e.g., an inner coating, intermediate coating, and/or outercoating) of the particles of the invention may include any suitablepolymer. In some embodiments, the polymer of the coating isbiocompatible and/or biodegradable. In some embodiments, the polymer ofthe coating comprises more than one type of polymer (e.g., at least two,three, four, five, or more types of polymers). In some embodiments, thepolymer of the coating is a random copolymer or a block copolymer (e.g.,a diblock or triblock copolymer) as described herein.

Non-limiting examples of suitable polymers of the coating may includepolyamines, polyethers, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbamates,polyureas, polycarbonates, polystyrenes, polyimides, polysulfones,polyurethanes, polyacetylenes, polyethylenes, polyethyeneimines,polyisocyanates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, polyacrylonitriles,and polyarylates. Non-limiting examples of specific polymers includepoly(caprolactone) (PCL), ethylene vinyl acetate polymer (EVA),poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA), poly(glycolic acid)(PGA), poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), poly(L-lacticacid-co-glycolic acid) (PLLGA), poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLA), poly(L-lactide) (PLLA), poly(D,L-lactide-co-caprolactone),poly(D,L-lactide-co-caprolactone-co-glycolide),poly(D,L-lactide-co-PEO-co-D,L-lactide),poly(D,L-lactide-co-PPO-co-D,L-lactide), polyalkyl cyanoacrylate,polyurethane, poly-L-lysine (PLL), hydroxypropyl methacrylate (HPMA),poly(ethylene glycol), poly-L-glutamic acid, poly(hydroxy acids),polyanhydrides, polyorthoesters, poly(ester amides), polyamides,poly(ester ethers), polycarbonates, polyalkylenes such as polyethyleneand polypropylene, polyalkylene glycols such as poly(ethylene glycol)(PEG), polyalkylene terephthalates such as poly(ethylene terephthalate),polyvinyl alcohols (PVA), polyvinyl ethers, polyvinyl esters such aspoly(vinyl acetate), polyvinyl halides such as poly(vinyl chloride)(PVC), polyvinylpyrrolidone, polysiloxanes, polystyrene (PS),polyurethanes, derivatized celluloses such as alkyl celluloses,hydroxyalkyl celluloses, cellulose ethers, cellulose esters, nitrocelluloses, hydroxypropylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, polymers ofacrylic acids, such as poly(methyl(meth)acrylate) (PMMA),poly(ethyl(meth)acrylate), poly(butyl(meth)acrylate),poly(isobutyl(meth)acrylate), poly(hexyl(meth)acrylate),poly(isodecyl(meth)acrylate), poly(lauryl(meth)acrylate),poly(phenyl(meth)acrylate), poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropylacrylate), poly(isobutyl acrylate), poly(octadecyl acrylate) (jointlyreferred to herein as “polyacrylic acids”), and copolymers and mixturesthereof, polydioxanone and its copolymers, polyhydroxyalkanoates,polypropylene fumarate), polyoxymethylene, poloxamers,poly(ortho)esters, poly(butyric acid), poly(valeric acid),poly(lactide-co-caprolactone), and trimethylene carbonate.

The molecular weight of the polymer of the coating may vary. In someembodiments, the molecular weight of the polymer of the coating is atleast about 0.5 kDa, at least about 1 kDa, at least about 1.8 kDa, atleast about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at least about 4 kDa, at leastabout 5 kDa, at least about 6 kDa, at least about 8 kDa, at least about10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa, at least about 20kDa, at least about 30 kDa, at least about 40 kDa, or at least about 50kDa. In some embodiments, the molecular weight of the polymer of thecoating is less than about 50 kDa, less than about 40 kDa, less thanabout 30 kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about 12 kDa, less thanabout 10 kDa, less than about 8 kDa, less than about 6 kDa, less thanabout 5 kDa, or less than about 4 kDa. Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a molecular weight of atleast about 2 kDa and less than about 15 kDa). Other ranges are alsopossible. The molecular weight of the polymer of the coating may bedetermined using any known technique such as light-scattering and gelpermeation chromatography. Other methods are known in the art.

In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of the hydrophobic block ofthe triblock copolymer of the (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobicblock)-(hydrophilic block) configuration is at least about 2 kDa, andthe two hydrophilic blocks constitute at least about 15 wt % of thetriblock copolymer.

In certain embodiments, the polymer of the coating is biocompatible. Incertain embodiments, the polymer of the coating is biodegradable. Allbiocompatible polymers and biodegrade polymers are contemplated to bewithin the scope of the invention. In certain embodiments, a polymerdegrades in vivo within a period that is acceptable for the desiredapplication. For example, in an in vivo therapy, the polymer degrades ina period less than about five years, about one year, about six months,about three months, about one month, about two weeks, about one week,about three days, about one day, about six hours, or about one hour uponexposure to a physiological environment with a pH between about 6 andabout 8 having a temperature of between about 25 and about 37° C. Insome embodiments, the polymer of the coating degrades in a period ofbetween about one hour and several weeks, depending on the desiredapplication.

Although the particles of the invention, and the coating thereof, mayeach include polymers, in some embodiments, the particles of theinvention comprise a hydrophobic material that is not a polymer orpharmaceutical agent. Non-limiting examples of non-polymeric hydrophobicmaterials include, for example, metals, waxes, and organic materials(e.g., organic silanes and perfluorinated or fluorinated organicmaterials).

Particles with Reduced Mucoadhesion

Particles of the invention may have reduced mucoadhesiveness. A materialin need of increased diffusivity through mucus may be hydrophobic, mayinclude many hydrogen bond donors or acceptors, and/or may be highlycharged. In some cases, the material may include a crystalline oramorphous solid material. The material, which may serve as a core, maybe coated with a suitable polymer described herein, thereby forming aparticle with a plurality of surface-altering moieties on the surface,resulting in reduced mucoadhesion. Particles of the invention as havingreduced mucoadhesion may alternatively be characterized as havingincreased transport through mucus, being mobile in mucus, ormucus-penetrating (i.e., mucus-penetrating particles), meaning that theparticles are transported through mucus faster than a negative controlparticle. The negative control particle may be a particle that is knownto be mucoadhesive, e.g., an unmodified particle or core that is notcoated with a coating described herein, such as a 200 nm carboxylatedpolystyrene particle.

Particles of the invention may be adapted for delivery (e.g.,inhalational delivery) to mucus or a mucosal surface of a subject. Theparticles with surface-altering moieties may be delivered to the mucosalsurface of a subject, may pass through the mucosal barrier in thesubject, and/or prolonged retention and/or increased uniformdistribution of the particles at mucosal surfaces, e.g., due to reducedmucoadhesion.

Furthermore, in some embodiments, the particles of the invention havingreduced mucoadhesion facilitate better distribution of the particles atthe surface of a tissue of a subject and/or have a prolonged presence atthe surface of the tissue, compared to particles that are moremucoadhesive. For example, a luminal space such as the gastrointestinaltract is surrounded by a mucus-coated surface. Mucoadhesive particlesdelivered to such a space are typically removed from the luminal spaceand from the mucus-coated surface by the subject's natural clearancemechanisms. The particles of the invention with reduced mucoadhesion mayremain in the luminal space for relatively longer periods compared tothe mucoadhesive particles. This prolonged presence may prevent orreduce clearance of the particles and/or may allow for betterdistribution of the particles on the surface of the tissue. Theprolonged presence may also affect the particle transport through theluminal space, e.g., the particles may distribute into the mucus layerand may reach the underlying epithelium.

In certain embodiments, the core of the particles of the inventioncoated with the polymer of the coating may pass through mucus or amucosal barrier in a subject, exhibit prolonged retention, and/orincrease uniform distribution of the particles at mucosal surfaces,e.g., such substances are cleared more slowly (e.g., at least about 2times, about 5 times, about 10 times, or even at least about 20 timesmore slowly) from a subject's body as compared to a negative controlparticle of the invention.

The mobility of the particles of the invention in mucus may becharacterized in, e.g., the relative velocity and/or diffusivity of theparticles. In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention havecertain relative velocity, <V_(mean)>_(rel), which is defined asfollows:

$\begin{matrix}{{\text{<}V_{mean}\text{>}_{rel}} = \frac{{\text{<}V_{mean}\text{>}_{Sample}} - {\text{<}V_{mean}\text{>}_{{Negative}\mspace{14mu}{control}}}}{{\text{<}V_{mean}\text{>}_{{Positive}\mspace{14mu}{control}}} - {\text{<}V_{mean}\text{>}_{{Negative}\mspace{14mu}{control}}}}} & \left( {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 1} \right)\end{matrix}$

wherein:

<V_(mean)> is the ensemble average trajectory-mean velocity;

V_(mean) is the velocity of an individual particle averaged over itstrajectory;

the sample is the particle of interest;

the negative control is a 200 nm carboxylated polystyrene particle; and

the positive control is a 200 nm polystyrene particle densely PEGylatedwith 2-5 kDa PEG.

The relative velocity can be measured by a multiple particle trackingtechnique. For instance, a fluorescent microscope equipped with a CCDcamera can be used to capture 15 s movies at a temporal resolution of66.7 ms (15 frames/s) under 100× magnification from several areas withineach sample for each type of particles: sample, negative control, andpositive control. The sample, negative control, and positive control maybe fluorescent particles to observe tracking. Alternativelynon-fluorescent particles may be coated with a fluorescent molecule, afluorescently tagged surface agent, or a fluorescently tagged polymer.An advanced image processing software (e.g., IMAGE PRO OR METAMORPH) canbe used to measure individual trajectories of multiple particles over atime-scale of at least 3.335 s (50 frames).

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention have a relativevelocity of greater than or equal to about 0.3, greater than or equal toabout 0.5, greater than or equal to about 0.7, greater than or equal toabout 1.0, greater than or equal to about 1.5, or greater than or equalto about 2.0 in mucus. In some embodiments, particles of the inventionhave a relative velocity of less than about 10.0, less than about 6.0,less than about 2.0, less than about 1.5, less than about 1.0, or lessthan about 0.7 in mucus. Combinations of the above-noted ranges arepossible (e.g., a relative velocity of greater than or equal to about0.5 and less than about 6.0). Other ranges are also possible.

In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention diffuse throughmucus or a mucosal barrier at a greater rate or diffusivity thannegative control particles or corresponding particles (e.g., particlesthat are unmodified and/or not coated with a coating described herein).In some embodiments, the particles of the invention pass through mucusor a mucosal barrier at a rate of diffusivity that is at least about 10times, about 30 times, about 100 times, about 300 times, about 1000times, about 3000 times, about 10000 times higher than a controlparticle or a corresponding particle. In some embodiments, the particlesof the invention pass through mucus or a mucosal barrier at a rate ofdiffusivity that is less than about 10000 times higher, less than about3000 times higher, less than about 1000 times higher, less than about300 times higher, less than about 100 times higher, less than about 30times higher, or less than about 10 times higher than negative controlparticles or corresponding particles. Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 10 timesand less than about 1000 times higher than negative control particles orcorresponding particles). Other ranges are also possible.

For the purposes of the comparisons described herein, the correspondingparticles may be approximately the same size, shape, and/or density asthe particles of the invention but lack the coating that makes theparticles of the invention mobile in mucus. In some embodiments, themeasurement of the geometric mean square displacement and rate ofdiffusivity of the particles (e.g., the corresponding particles andparticles of the invention) is based on a time scale of about 1 second,about 3 seconds, or about 10 seconds. Methods for determining thegeometric mean square displacement and rate of diffusivity are known inthe art. The particles of the invention may pass through mucus or amucosal barrier with a geometric mean squared displacement that is atleast about 10 times, about 30 times, about 100 times, about 300 times,about 1000 times, about 3000 times, about 10000 times higher thancorresponding particles or negative control particles. In someembodiments, the particles of the invention pass through mucus or amucosal barrier with a geometric mean squared displacement that is lessthan about 10000 times higher, less than about 3000 times higher, lessthan about 1000 times higher, less than about 300 times higher, lessthan about 100 times higher, less than about 30 times higher, or lessthan about 10 times higher than negative control particles orcorresponding particles. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges arealso possible (e.g., at least about 10 times and less than about 1000times higher than negative control particles or correspondingparticles). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, particles of the invention diffuse through amucosal barrier at a rate approaching the rate or diffusivity at whichthe particles can diffuse through water. In some embodiments, theparticles of the invention pass through a mucosal barrier at a rate ordiffusivity that is less than about 1/100, less than about 1/300, lessthan about 1/1000, less than about 1/3000, less than about 1/10,000 ofthe diffusivity that the particles diffuse through water under similarconditions. In some embodiments, particles of the invention pass througha mucosal barrier at a rate or diffusivity that is greater than or equalto about 1/10,000, greater than or equal to about 1/3000, greater thanor equal to about 1/1000, greater than or equal to about 1/300, orgreater than or equal to about 1/100 of the diffusivity that theparticles diffuse through water under similar conditions. Combinationsof the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than orequal to about 1/3000 and less than 1/300 the diffusivity that theparticles diffuse through water under similar conditions). Other rangesare also possible. The measurement of diffusivity may be based on a timescale of about 1 second, or about 0.5 second, or about 2 seconds, orabout 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention diffuse throughhuman cervicovaginal mucus at a diffusivity that is less than about1/500 of the diffusivity that the particles diffuse through water. Insome embodiments, the measurement of diffusivity is based on a timescale of about 1 second, or about 0.5 second, or about 2 seconds, orabout 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention travel throughmucus, such as human cervicovaginal mucus, at certain absolutediffusivities. For example, the particles of the invention may travel atdiffusivities of at least about 1×10⁻⁴ μm/s, about 3×10⁻⁴ μm/s, about1×10⁻³ μm/s, about 3×10⁻³ μm/s, about 1×10⁻² μm/s, about 3×10⁻² μm/s,about 1×10⁻¹ μm/s, about 3×10⁻¹ μm/s, about 1 μm/s, or about 3 μm/s. Insome embodiments, the particles may travel at diffusivities of less thanabout 3 μm/s, less than about 1 μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻¹ m/s, lessthan about 1×10⁻¹ μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻² μm/s, less than about1×10⁻² μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻³ μm/s, less than about 1×10⁻³ μm/s,less than about 3×10⁻⁴ μm/s, or less than about 1×10⁻⁴ μm/s.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g.,greater than or equal to about 3×10⁻⁴ μm/s and less than about 1×10⁻¹μm/s). Other ranges are also possible. In some cases, the measurement ofdiffusivity is based on a time scale of about 1 second, or about 0.5second, or about 2 seconds, or about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

It should be appreciated that while the mobility (e.g., relativevelocity and diffusivity) of the particles of the invention may bemeasured in human cervicovaginal mucus, the mobility may be measured inother types of mucus as well.

In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention comprisesurface-altering moieties at a given density. The surface-alteringmoieties may be the portions of a surface-altering agent that are, forexample, exposed to the solvent containing the particles. In oneexample, the hydrolyzed units/blocks of PVA may be surface-alteringmoieties of the surface-altering agent PVA. In another example, the PEGsegments may be surface-altering moieties of the surface-altering agentPEG-PPO-PEG. In some embodiments, the surface-altering moieties and/orsurface-altering agents are present at a density of at least about 0.001units or molecules per nm², at least about 0.003, at least about 0.01,at least about 0.03, at least about 0.1, at least about 0.2, at leastabout 0.3, at least about 1, at least about 3, at least about 10, atleast about 30, at least about 100 units or molecules per nm², or moreunits or molecules per nm². In some cases, the surface-altering moietiesand/or surface-altering agents are present at a density of less thanabout 100 units or molecules per nm², less than about 30, less thanabout 10, less than about 3, less than about 1, less than about 0.3,less than about 0.2, less than about 0.1, less than about 0.03, or lessthan about 0.01 units or molecules per nm². Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a density of at least about0.01 and less than about 1 units or molecules per nm²). Other ranges arealso possible. In some embodiments, the density values described hereinare an average density as the surface altering agent is in equilibriumwith other components in solution.

Those skilled in the art would be aware of methods to estimate theaverage density of surface-altering moieties (see, for example, Budijonoet al., Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 2010, 360,105-110; Joshi et al., Anal. Chim. Acta 1979, 104, 153-160). Forexample, as described herein, the average density of surface-alteringmoieties can be determined using HPLC quantitation and DLS analysis. Asuspension of particles for which surface density determination is ofinterest is first sized using DLS: a small volume is diluted to anappropriate concentration (e.g., about 100 μg/mL), and the z-averagediameter is taken as a representative measurement of particle size. Theremaining suspension is then divided into two aliquots. Using HPLC, thefirst aliquot is assayed for the total concentration of core materialand for the total concentration of the surface-altering moiety. Againusing HPLC, the second aliquot is assayed for the concentration of freeor unbound surface-altering moiety. In order to get only the free orunbound surface-altering moiety from the second aliquot, the particles,and therefore any bound surface-altering moiety, are removed byultracentrifugation. By subtracting the concentration of the unboundsurface-altering moiety from the total concentration of surface-alteringmoiety, the concentration of bound surface-altering moiety can bedetermined. Since the total concentration of core material was alsodetermined from the first aliquot, the mass ratio between the corematerial and the surface-altering moiety can be determined. Using themolecular weight of the surface-altering moiety the number ofsurface-altering moiety to mass of core material can be calculated. Toturn this number into a surface density measurement, the surface areaper mass of core material needs to be calculated. The volume of theparticle is approximated as that of a sphere with the diameter obtainedfrom DLS allowing for the calculation of the surface area per mass ofcore material. In this way the number of surface-altering moieties persurface area can be determined.

In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention comprisesurface-altering moieties and/or agents that affect the zeta-potentialof the particle. The zeta potential of the particle may be, for example,at least about −100 mV, at least about −30 mV, at least about −10 mV, atleast about −3 mV, at least about 3 mV, at least about 10 mV, at leastabout 30 mV, or at least about 100 mV. The zeta potential of theparticle may also be, for example, less than about 100 mV, less thanabout 30 mV, less than about 10 mV, less than about 3 mV, less thanabout −3 mV, less than about −10 mV, less than about −30 mV, or lessthan about −100 mV. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges arepossible (e.g., a zeta-potential of at least about −30 mV and less thanabout 30 mV). Other ranges are also possible.

The particles of the invention may have any suitable shape and/or size.In some embodiments, the particle has a shape substantially similar tothe shape of the core. In some embodiments, the particle is ananoparticle. In some embodiments, the particle is a microparticle. Aplurality of particles, in some embodiments, may also be characterizedby an average size (e.g., an average largest cross-sectional dimensionor average smallest cross-sectional dimension for a plurality ofparticles). A plurality of particles may have an average size of, forexample, less than about 10 μm, less than about 3 μm, less than about 1μm, less than about 500 nm, less than 400 nm, less than 300 nm, lessthan about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, lessthan about 30 nm, or less than about 10 nm. In some cases, a pluralityof particles may have an average size of, for example, at least about 10nm, at least about 30 nm, at least about 50 nm, at least about 100 nm,at least about 200 nm, at least about 300 nm, at least about 400 nm, atleast about 500 nm, at least about 1 μm, at least or at least about 3μm. In one embodiment, a plurality of particles has an average size ofless than about 400 nm. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges arealso possible (e.g., an average size of at least about 30 nm and lessthan about 500 nm). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments,the sizes of the cores of the particles of the invention have aGaussian-type distribution. In some embodiments, the sizes of theparticles of the invention have a Gaussian-type distribution.

Pharmaceutical Agents

A particle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention may compriseat least one pharmaceutical agent. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent described herein is a pharmaceutically acceptablesalt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopicallylabeled derivative, or prodrug of another pharmaceutical agent. Incertain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a co-crystal withanother substance (e.g., a solvent, protein, or another pharmaceuticalagent). The pharmaceutical agent may be present in the core and/or oneor more coatings of the particle (e.g., dispersed throughout the coreand/or coating). In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent may bedisposed on the surface of the particle (e.g., on the outer or innersurface of the one or more coatings or on the surface of the core). Thepharmaceutical agent may be contained within the particle and/ordisposed in a portion of the particle using commonly known techniques(e.g., coating, adsorption, covalent linkage, and encapsulation). Insome embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is present during theformation of the core. In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent isnot present during the formation of the core. In certain embodiments,the pharmaceutical agent is present during the coating of the core.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent contained in a particle orpharmaceutical composition of the invention has a therapeutic and/orprophylactic effect in a mucosal tissue to be targeted. Non-limitingexamples of mucosal tissues include respiratory (e.g., including nasal,pharyngeal, tracheal, and bronchial membranes), oral (e.g., includingthe buccal and esophagal membranes and tonsil surface), ophthalmic,gastrointestinal (e.g., including stomach, small intestine, largeintestine, colon, rectum), nasal, and genital (e.g., including vaginal,cervical and urethral membranes) tissues. In a preferred embodiment, thetarget tissue is respiratory (e.g., including nasal, pharyngeal,tracheal, and bronchial membranes).

Any suitable number of pharmaceutical agents may be present in aparticle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention. For example, atleast 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, or morepharmaceutical agents may be present in the particle or pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention. In certain embodiments, less than 10pharmaceutical agents are present in the particle or pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent in the particles orpharmaceutical compositions of the invention is a compound of theinvention. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is one thatis known to be mucoadhesive (see, for example, Khanvilkar et al., Adv.Drug Delivery Rev. 2001, 48, 173-193; Bhat et al., J. Pharm. Sci. 1996,85, 624-30). Non-limiting examples of the pharmaceutical agent includeimaging and diagnostic agents (such as radioopaque agents, labeledantibodies, labeled nucleic acid probes, dyes (e.g., colored orfluorescent dyes), and adjuvants (e.g., radiosensitizers,transfection-enhancing agents, chemotactic agents, and chemoattractants,peptides that modulate cell adhesion and/or cell mobility, cellpermeabilizing agents, vaccine potentiators, and inhibitors of multidrugresistance and/or efflux pumps).

The pharmaceutical agent in the particles or pharmaceutical compositionsof the invention may be a therapeutic agent, diagnostic agent, imagingagent, agent with a detectable label, nucleic acid, nucleic acid analog,small molecule, peptidomimetic, protein, peptide, lipid, vaccine, viralvector, virus, or surfactant. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceuticalagent is an antibiotic agent. In certain embodiments, the antibioticagent is anti-bacterial agent, anti-viral agent, antifungal agent,antiprotozoan, or antiparasitic agent. In certain embodiments, theantibiotic agent is a lactam antibiotic agent. In certain embodiments,the antibiotic agent is a β-lactam antibiotic agent. In certainembodiments, the β-lactam antibiotic agent is a carbapenem. In certainembodiments, the carbapenem is meropenem. In certain embodiments, thecarbapenem is biapenem. In certain embodiments, the carbapenem isertapenem. In certain embodiments, the carbapenem is doripenem. Incertain embodiments, the carbapenem is imipenem. In certain embodiments,the carbapenem is panipenem. In certain embodiments, the β-lactamantibiotic agent is a penicillin (i.e., a penam, e.g., anaminopenicillin (e.g., amoxicillin, an ampicillin (e.g., pivampicillin,hetacillin, bacampicillin, metampicillin, talampicillin), epicillin), acarboxypenicillin (e.g., a carbenicillin (e.g., carindacillin),ticarcillin, temocillin), a ureidopenicillin (e.g., azlocillin,piperacillin, mezlocillin), a mecillinam (e.g, pivmecillinam),sulbenicillin, benzylpenicillin, clometocillin, benzathinebenzylpenicillin, procaine benzylpenicillin, azidocillin, penamecillin,phenoxymethylpenicillin, propicillin, benzathinephenoxymethylpenicillin, pheneticillin, a cloxacillin (e.g.,dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin), oxacillin, methicillin, nafcillin, apenem (e.g, faropenem), a cephem (e.g., cefazolin, cefacetrile,cefadroxil, cefalexin, cefaloglycin, cefalonium, cefaloridine,cefalotin, cefapirin, cefatrizine, cefazedone, cefazaflur, cefradine,cefroxadine, ceftezole, cefaclor, cefamandole, cefminox, cefonicid,ceforanide, cefotiam, cefprozil, cefbuperazone, cefuroxime, cefuzonam, acephamycin (e.g, cefoxitin, cefotetan, cefmetazole), a carbacephem(e.g., loracarbef), cefixime, ceftriaxone, an antipseudomonal (e.g.,ceftazidime, cefoperazone), cefcapene, cefdaloxime, cefdinir,cefditoren, cefetamet, cefmenoxime, cefodizime, cefotaxime, cefpimizole,cefpiramide, cefpodoxime, cefsulodin, cefteram, ceftibuten, ceftiolene,ceftizoxime, an oxacephem (e.g., flomoxef, latamoxef), cefepime,cefozopran, cefpirome, cefquinome, ceftobiprole, ceftaroline fosamil,ceftiofur, cefquinome, cefovecin, a monobactam (e.g., aztreonam,tigemonam, carumonam, nocardicin A), or combination thereof. In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is an anti-inflammatory agent. Incertain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a pain-relieving agent.In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is ananti-proliferative agent (e.g., an anti-cancer agent). Additionalnon-limiting examples of the pharmaceutical agent in the particles orpharmaceutical compositions of the invention include benethaminepenicillin, cinoxacin, ciprofloxacin HCl, clarithromycin, clofazimine,cloxacillin, demeclocycline, doxycycline, erythromycin, ethionamide,imipenem, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, rifampicin, spiramycin,sulphabenzamide, sulphadoxine, sulphamerazine, sulphacetamide,sulphadiazine, sulphafurazole, sulphamethoxazole, sulphapyridine,tetracycline, trimethoprim, dicoumarol, dipyridamole, nicoumalone,phenindione, amoxapine, maprotiline HCl, mianserin HCL, nortriptylineHCl, trazodone HCL, trimipramine maleate, acetohexamide, chlorpropamide,glibenclamide, gliclazide, glipizide, tolazamide, tolbutamide,beclamide, carbamazepine, clonazepam, ethotoin, methoin, methsuximide,methylphenobarbitone, oxcarbazepine, paramethadione, phenacemide,phenobarbitone, phenytoin, phensuximide, primidone, sulthiame, valproicacid, amphotericin, butoconazole nitrate, clotrimazole, econazolenitrate, fluconazole, flucytosine, griseofulvin, itraconazole,ketoconazole, miconazole, natamycin, nystatin, sulconazole nitrate,terbinafine HCl, terconazole, tioconazole, undecenoic acid, allopurinol,probenecid, sulphin-pyrazone, amlodipine, benidipine, darodipine,dilitazem HCl, diazoxide, felodipine, guanabenz acetate, isradipine,minoxidil, nicardipine HCl, nifedipine, nimodipine, phenoxybenzamineHCl, prazosin HCL, reserpine, terazosin HCL, amodiaquine, chloroquine,chlorproguanil HCl, halofantrine HCl, mefloquine HCl, roguanil HCl,pyrimethamine, quinine sulphate, dihydroergotamine mesylate, ergotaminetartrate, methysergide maleate, pizotifen maleate, sumatriptansuccinate, atropine, benzhexol HCl, biperiden, ethopropazine HCl,hyoscyamine, mepenzolate bromide, oxyphencylcimine HCl, tropicamide,aminoglutethimide, amsacrine, azathioprine, busulphan, chlorambucil,cyclosporin, dacarbazine, estramustine, etoposide, lomustine, melphalan,mercaptopurine, methotrexate, mitomycin, mitotane, mitozantrone,procarbazine HCl, tamoxifen citrate, testolactone, benznidazole,clioquinol, decoquinate, diiodohydroxyquinoline, diloxanide furoate,dinitolmide, furzolidone, metronidazole, nimorazole, nitrofurazone,ornidazole, tinidazole, carbimazole, propylthiouracil, alprazolam,amylobarbitone, barbitone, bentazepam, bromazepam, bromperidol,brotizolam, butobarbitone, carbromal, chlordiazepoxide, chlormethiazole,chlorpromazine, clobazam, clotiazepam, clozapine, diazepam, droperidol,ethinamate, flunanisone, flunitrazepam, fluopromazine, flupenthixoldecanoate, fluphenazine decanoate, flurazepam, haloperidol, lorazepam,lormetazepam, medazepam, meprobamate, methaqualone, midazolam,nitrazepam, oxazepam, pentobarbitone, perphenazine pimozide,prochlorperazine, sulpiride, temazepam, thioridazine, triazolam,zopiclone, acebutolol, alprenolol, atenolol, labetalol, metoprolol,nadolol, oxprenolol, pindolol, propranolol, amrinone, digitoxin,digoxin, enoximone, lanatoside C, medigoxin, beclomethasone,betamethasone, budesonide, cortisone acetate, desoxymethasone,dexamethasone, fludrocortisone acetate, flunisolide, flucortolone,fluticasone propionate, hydrocortisone, methylprednisolone,prednisolone, prednisone, triamcinolone, acetazolamide, amiloride,bendrofluazide, bumetanide, chlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, ethacrynicacid, frusemide, metolazone, spironolactone, triamterene, bromocriptinemesylate, lysuride maleate, bisacodyl, cimetidine, cisapride,diphenoxylate HCl, domperidone, famotidine, loperamide, mesalazine,nizatidine, omeprazole, ondansetron HCL, ranitidine HCl, sulphasalazine,acrivastine, astemizole, cinnarizine, cyclizine, cyproheptadie HCl,dimenhydrinate, flunarizine HCl, loratadine, meclozine HCl, oxatomide,terfenadine, bezafibrate, clofibrate, fenofibrate, gemfibrozil,probucol, amyl nitrate, glyceryl trinitrate, isosorbide dinitrate,isosorbide mononitrate, pentaerythritol tetranitrate, betacarotene,vitamin A, vitamin B 2, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, codeine,dextropropyoxyphene, diamorphine, dihydrocodeine, meptazinol, methadone,morphine, nalbuphine, pentazocine, clomiphene citrate, danazol, ethinylestradiol, medroxyprogesterone acetate, mestranol, methyltestosterone,norethisterone, norgestrel, estradiol, conjugated oestrogens,progesterone, stanozolol, stibestrol, testosterone, tibolone,amphetamine, dexamphetamine, dexfenfluramine, fenfluramine, mazindol,pazopanib, sorafenib, lapatinib, fluocinolone acetonide, semaxanib,axitinib, tivozanib, cediranib, linifanib, regorafenib, telatinib,vatalanib, MGCD-265, OSI-930, KRN-633, bimatoprost, latanoprost,travoprost, aloxiprin, auranofin, azapropazone, benorylate, diflunisal,etodolac, fenbufen, fenoprofen calcim, flurbiprofen, furosemide,ibuprofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, loteprednol etabonate, meclofenamicacid, mefenamic acid, nabumetone, naproxen, oxyphenbutazone,phenylbutazone, piroxicam, sulindac, albendazole, bepheniumhydroxynaphthoate, cambendazole, dichlorophen, ivermectin, mebendazole,oxamniquine, oxfendazole, oxantel embonate, praziquantel, pyrantelembonate, thiabendazole, amiodarone HCl, disopyramide, flecainideacetate, and quinidine sulphate. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is a corticosteroid (e.g., loteprednol etabonate,hydrocortisone, cortisone, tixocortol, prednisolone, methylprednisolone,prednisone, triamcinolone, mometasone, amcinonide, budesonide, desonide,fluocinonide, fluocinolone, halcinonide, betamethasone, dexamethasone,fluocortolone, hydrocortisone, aclometasone, prednicarbate, clobetasone,clobetasol, fluprednidene, glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid,aldosterone, deoxycorticosterone, fludrocortisone, halobetasol,diflorasone, desoximetasone, fluticasone, flurandrenolide,alclometasone, diflucortolone, flunisolide, or beclomethasone). Incertain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a non-steroidalanti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is a salicylate (e.g., aspirin (acetylsalicylicacid), diflunisal, or salsalate). In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is a propionic acid derivative (e.g., ibuprofen,naproxen, fenoprofen, ketoprofen, dexketoprofen, flurbiprofen,oxaprozin, and loxoprofen). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceuticalagent is an acetic acid derivative (e.g., indomethacin, sulindac,etodolac, ketorolac, diclofenac, and nabumetone). In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is an enolic acid (oxicam)derivative (e.g., piroxicam, meloxicam, tenoxicam, droxicam, lornoxicam,and isoxicam). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is afenamic acid derivative (fenamate) (e.g., mefenamic acid, meclofenamicacid, flufenamic acid, and tolfenamic acid). In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is a selective cox-2 inhibitor (coxib) (e.g.,celecoxib, rofecoxib, valdecoxib, parecoxib, lumiracoxib, etoricoxib,and firocoxib). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is asulphonanilide (e.g., nimesulide). In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is licofelone. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is an endogenous angiogenesis inhibitor (e.g.,VEGFR-1 (e.g., pazopanib (VOTRIENT®), cediranib (RECENTIN®), tivozanib(AV-951), axitinib (INLYTA®), semaxanib), HER2 (lapatinib (TYKERB®,TYVERB®), Linifanib (ABT-869), MGCD-265, and KRN-633), VEGFR-2 (e.g.,regorafenib(BAY 73-4506), telatinib (BAY 57-9352), vatalanib (PTK787,PTK/ZK), MGCD-265, OSI-930, and KRN-633), NRP-1, angiopoietin 2, TSP-1,TSP-2, angiostatin, endostatin, vasostatin, calreticulin, plateletfactor-4, TIMP, CDAI, Meth-1, Meth-2, IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, CXCL10, TL-4,IL-12, IL-18, prothrombin (kringle domain-2), antithrombin III fragment,prolactin, VEGI, SPARC, osteopontin, maspin, canstatin, aproliferin-related protein, sorafenib (NEXAVAR®)), and restin). Incertain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is an exogenousangiogenesis inhibitor (e.g., bevacizumab, itraconazole,carboxyamidotriazole, TNP-470, CM101, IFN-α, IL-12, platelet factor-4,suramin, SU5416, thrombospondin, VEGFR antagonist, an angiostaticsteroid+heparin, a cartilage-derived angiogenesis inhibitory factor, amatrix metalloproteinase inhibitor, angiostatin, endostatin,2-methoxyestradiol, tecogalan, tetrathiomolybdate, thalidomide,thrombospondin, prolactin, a α_(V)β₃ inhibitor, linomide, andtasquinimod). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is aprostaglandin analog. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agentis latanoprost, travoprost, unoprostone, or bimatoprost. In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a beta blocker. In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a non-selective beta blocker(e.g., alprenolol, bucindolol, carteolol, carvedilol, labetalol,nadolol, oxprenolol, penbutolol, pindolol, propranolol, sotalol,timolol, and eucommia bark). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceuticalagent is a β₁-selective blocker (e.g., acebutolol, atenolol, betaxolol,bisoprolol, celiprolol, esmolol, metoprolol, and nebivolol). In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a β₂-selective blocker (e.g.,butaxamine and ICI-118,551). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceuticalagent is a β₃-selective blocker (e.g., SR 59230A). In certainembodiments, the pharm agent is an arbonic anhydrase inhibitor. Incertain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is acetazolamide,brinzolamide, dorzolamide, dorzolamide and timolol, or methazolamide. Incertain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a carbonic anhydraseinhibitor.

The pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of theinvention) may be encapsulated in a polymer, a lipid, a protein, or acombination thereof.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

In one aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceuticalcompositions comprising the compounds of the invention. In anotheraspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositionscomprising the plurality of particles of the invention. In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention arepharmaceutical compositions. The pharmaceutical compositions may alsocomprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. Thepharmaceutical compositions may further comprise one or more additionalpharmaceutical agents described herein. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions are useful for the delivery of apharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of theinvention) through or to mucus or a mucosal surface in a subject. Thepharmaceutical compositions may be delivered to the mucosal surface inthe subject and may pass through a mucosal barrier in the subject (e.g.,mucus), and/or may show prolonged retention and/or increased uniformdistribution of the particles of the invention at the mucosal surface,e.g., due to reduced mucoadhesion. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions are useful in increasing the bioavailabilityof the pharmaceutical agent in the subject. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions are useful in increasing the concentrationof the pharmaceutical agent in the subject. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions are useful in increasing the exposure of thepharmaceutical agent in the subject. Moreover, the pharmaceuticalcompositions may be useful in treating and/or preventing a disease(e.g., a respiratory tract disease) in a subject.

In certain embodiments, the subject described herein is a human. In someembodiments, the subject is a human with cystic fibrosis and a pulmonaryinfection. In certain embodiments, the subject is an animal. The animalmay be of either sex and may be at any stage of development. In certainembodiments, the subject is a fish. In certain embodiments, the subjectis a mammal. In certain embodiments, the subject is a domesticatedanimal, such as a dog, cat, cow, pig, horse, sheep, or goat. In certainembodiments, the subject is a companion animal such as a dog or cat. Incertain embodiments, the subject is a livestock animal such as a cow,pig, horse, sheep, or goat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a zooanimal. In another embodiment, the subject is a research animal such asa rodent (e.g., mouse, rat), dog, pig, or non-human primate. In certainembodiments, the animal is a genetically engineered animal. In certainembodiments, the animal is a transgenic animal. In certain embodiments,the subject is immunocompromised. For example, the subject may havereduced immune system function as a result of a disease such as HIVinfection, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), cancer (e.g.,solid tumor or leukemia), bone marrow disorder, or a geneticimmunodeficiency. In some embodiments, the subject is immunocompromisedas a result of a medication, e.g., immunosuppressive therapy orchemotherapy, bone marrow transplant, stem cell transplant, or exposureto radiation. In some embodiments, reduced immune system functioncomprises neutropenia.

In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract disease is a respiratorytract infection. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract infectionis an upper respiratory tract infection. In certain embodiments, theupper respiratory tract infection is tonsillitis. In certainembodiments, the upper respiratory tract infection is pharyngitis. Incertain embodiments, the upper respiratory tract infection islaryngitis. In certain embodiments, the upper respiratory tractinfection is sinusitis. In certain embodiments, the upper respiratorytract infection is otitis media. In certain embodiments, the upperrespiratory tract infection is influenza. In certain embodiments, theupper respiratory tract infection is avian influenza. In certainembodiments, the upper respiratory tract infection is common cold. Incertain embodiments, the respiratory tract infection is a lowerrespiratory tract infection. In certain embodiments, the lowerrespiratory tract infection is bronchitis. In certain embodiments, thebronchitis is acute bronchitis. In certain embodiments, the bronchitisis chronic bronchitis. In certain embodiments, the lower respiratorytract infection is pneumonia (e.g., nosocomial pneumonia, severecommunity-acquired pneumonia). In certain embodiments, the lowerrespiratory tract infection is tuberculosis. In certain embodiments, thelower respiratory tract infection is influenza. In certain embodiments,the lower respiratory tract infection is avian influenza. Therespiratory tract infection may be caused by pathogenic microorganisms,such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasites. In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract infection is caused by a Pseudomonasspecies. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract infection iscaused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In certain embodiments, therespiratory tract infection is caused by a Mycobacterium species (e.g.,Mycobacterium tuberculosis). In certain embodiments, the respiratorytract infection is caused by a Streptococcus species (e.g.,Streptococcus pneumoniae). In certain embodiments, the respiratory tractinfection is caused by a Haemophilus species (e.g., Haemophilusinfluenzae). In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract infection iscaused by a Chlamydophila species (e.g., Chlamydophila pneumoniae). Incertain embodiments, the respiratory tract infection is caused by aMycoplasma species (e.g., Mycoplasma pneumoniae). In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract infection is caused by aStaphylococcus species (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus). In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract infection is caused by a Moraxellaspecies (e.g., Moraxella catarrhalis). In certain embodiments, therespiratory tract infection is caused by a Legionella species (e.g.,Legionella pneumophila). In certain embodiments, the respiratory tractinfection is caused by Gram-negative bacilli. In certain embodiments,the respiratory tract infection is caused by a Bordetella species (e.g.,Bordetella pertussis). In certain embodiments, the respiratory tractinfection is caused by a rhinovirus, coronavirus, adenovirus,metapneumovirus, parainfluenza virus, or respiratory syncytial virus. Incertain embodiments, the respiratory tract infection is caused by aninfluenzavirus (e.g., influenzavirus A (e.g., H1N1, H2N2, H3N2, orH5N1), influenzavirus B, or influenzavirus C). In certain embodiments,the respiratory tract disease is cystic fibrosis. In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract disease is asthma. In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract disease is chronic obstructivepulmonary disease (COPD). In certain embodiments, the respiratory tractdisease is emphysema. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tractdisease is pulmonary edema. In certain embodiments, the respiratorytract disease is lung cancer (e.g., small-cell lung carcinoma andnon-small-cell lung carcinoma). In certain embodiments, the respiratorytract disease is acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract disease is pneumoconiosis. In certainembodiments, the respiratory tract disease is an interstitial lungdisease (ILD) (e.g., sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis). Incertain embodiments, the respiratory tract disease is pulmonary embolism(PE). In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract disease is pulmonaryhypertension. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract disease ispleural effusion. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract diseaseis pneumothorax. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract diseaseis mesothelioma. In certain embodiments, the respiratory tract diseaseis obesity hypoventilation syndrome. In certain embodiments, therespiratory tract disease is a neuromuscular respiratory disease (e.g.,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, muscular dystrophies, and myastheniagravis).

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may include apharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier. A pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipient or pharmaceutically acceptable carrier may includea non-toxic, inert solid, semi-solid or liquid filler, diluent,encapsulating material, or formulation auxiliary of any suitable type.Some examples of materials which can serve as pharmaceuticallyacceptable carriers are sugars such as lactose, glucose, and sucrose;starches such as corn starch and potato starch; cellulose and itsderivatives such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, andcellulose acetate; powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatin; talc; excipientssuch as cocoa butter and suppository waxes; oils such as peanut oil,cottonseed oil; safflower oil; sesame oil; olive oil; corn oil andsoybean oil; glycols such as propylene glycol; esters such as ethyloleate and ethyl laurate; agar; detergents such as TWEEN 80; bufferingagents such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; alginic acid;pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; Ringer's solution; ethyl alcohol;phosphate buffer solutions; non-toxic lubricants such as sodium laurylsulfate and magnesium stearate; coloring agents; releasing agents;coating agents; sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents;preservatives; antioxidants, tonicity adjusting agents; viscositymodifiers; and suspension stabilizers. The pharmaceutical compositionsof the invention may be lyophilized or subjected to another appropriatedrying technique (e.g., spray drying). As would be appreciated by one ofskill in the art, the excipients may be chosen based on the route ofadministration, pharmaceutical agent being delivered, and time course ofdelivery of the pharmaceutical agent.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be administered toa subject via any route known in the art. These include, but are notlimited to, inhalational, oral, sublingual, nasal, intradermal,subcutaneous, intramuscular, rectal, vaginal, intravenous,intraarterial, intracisternally, intraperitoneal, intravitreal,periocular, topical (as by powders, creams, ointments, or drops), andbuccal administration. As would be appreciated by one skilled in theart, the route of administration and the effective dosage to achieve thedesired biological effect may be determined by the pharmaceutical agentbeing administered, the target organ, the preparation beingadministered, time course of administration, disease being treated, andintended use.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be suitable forinhalational administration to a subject. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical composition is an inhaler. The pharmaceutical compositionis an aerosol. In certain embodiments, the invention provides forassociating the inventive particles comprising compounds of Formula (I)with carrier particles, where the size of the resulting associatedparticles of the invention that comprises at least one pharmaceuticalagent is such as to permit inhalation of substantially all of thepharmaceutical agent into the respiratory tract upon administration. Forexample, the size of the associated particle is less than about 20microns, e.g., in the range of about 1 to about 10 microns, e.g., in therange of about 1 to about 5 microns. Other ranges of size of theassociated particle are also possible. The size of the particle may bereduced by conventional means, for example, by milling, precipitation,or micronization. The inhaler or aerosol may include, for example,between 0.005-90% w/w, between 0.005-50%, between 0.005-10%, betweenabout 0.005-5% w/w, or between 0.01-1.0% w/w of the pharmaceutical agentrelative to the total weight of the inhaler or aerosol. Other ranges arealso possible.

The inhaler or aerosol may comprise a propellant. The propellant mayinclude a polar adjuvant having a higher polarity and/or a higherboiling point than the propellant. In certain embodiments, the polaradjuvant improves the stability of the propellant. The polar adjuvantincludes aliphatic (e.g., C₂₋₆) alcohols and aliphatic polyols, such asethanol, isopropanol, and propylene glycol. A high content of the polaradjuvant in the inhaler or aerosol (e.g., in excess of 5% w/w) may tendto dissolve the pharmaceutical agent. In certain embodiments, theinhaler or aerosol includes a small quantity of the polar adjuvant(e.g., in the range of 0.05-3.0% w/w, e.g., about 1% w/w or about 0.1%w/w). In certain embodiments, the inhaler or aerosol may besubstantially free of polar adjuvants. The propellant may also include avolatile adjuvant. Exemplary volatile adjuvants include saturatedhydrocarbons (e.g., propane, n-butane, isobutane, pentane, andisopentane) and alkyl ethers (e.g., dimethyl ether). In certainembodiments, the content of the volatile adjuvant in the propellant isless than about 50% w/w. In certain embodiments, the inhaler or aerosolcomprises more than one propellant. In certain embodiments, the inhaleror aerosol does not include any components which may provoke thedegradation of stratospheric ozone. In some embodiments, thepharmaceutical compositions do not include propellants that comprise oneor more chlorofluorocarbons, such as CCl₃F, CCl₂F₂, and CF₃CCl₃.

The inhaler or aerosol may further comprise a surfactant. The surfactantmay be pharmaceutically acceptable upon inhalational administration.Exemplary surfactants include L-α-phosphatidylcholine (PC),1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidycholine (DPPC), oleic acid, sorbitantrioleate, sorbitan mono-oleate, sorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, naturallecithin, oleyl polyoxyethylene ether, stearyl polyoxyethylene ether,lauryl polyoxyethylene ether, block copolymers of oxyethylene andoxypropylene, synthetic lecithin, diethylene glycol dioleate,tetrahydrofurfuryl oleate, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, glycerylmonooleate, glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl monoricinoleate, cetylalcohol, stearyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol 400, cetyl pyridiniumchloride, benzalkonium chloride, olive oil, glyceryl monolaurate, cornoil, cotton seed oil, and sunflower seed oil. In certain embodiments,the inhaler or aerosol may further comprise more than one surfactant.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may also be a nasal ororal spray, such that the pharmaceutical composition is delivered acrossa nasal or oral mucus layer. As another example, the pharmaceuticalcompositions may be tablets, capsules, granules, powders, or syrups fororal administration. Moreover, the pharmaceutical compositions may beadministered parenterally as injections (intravenous, intramuscular, orsubcutaneous), drop infusion preparations, or suppositories. Forapplication by the ophthalmic mucous membrane route, the pharmaceuticalcompositions may be eye drops or eye ointments.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be prepared bydispersal of the compounds or particles of the invention in the selectedpropellant and/or co-propellant in an appropriate container, e.g., withthe aid of sonication. The compounds or particles may be suspended inco-propellant and filled into a suitable container. The valve of thecontainer is then sealed into place and the propellant introduced bypressure filling through the valve in the conventional manner. Thecompounds or particles may be thus suspended or dissolved in a liquefiedpropellant, sealed in a container with a metering valve and fitted intoan actuator. Such metered dose inhalers are well known in the art. Themetering valve may meter 10 to 500 μL and in certain embodiments, 25 to150 μL. In certain embodiments, dispersal may be achieved using drypowder inhalers (e.g., SPINHALER) for the compounds or particles (whichremain as dry powders). In some embodiments, nanospheres are suspendedin an aqueous fluid and nebulized into fine droplets to be aerosolizedinto the respiratory tract.

Sonic nebulizers may be used because they minimize exposing the agent toshear, which may result in degradation of the compounds or particles.Ordinarily, an aqueous aerosol is made by formulating an aqueoussuspension of the compounds or particles together with conventionalpharmaceutically acceptable excipients (e.g., carriers and stabilizers).The carriers and stabilizers vary with the requirements of theparticular pharmaceutical composition, but typically include non-ionicsurfactants (e.g., TWEENs, PLURONIC®, or polyethylene glycol), innocuousproteins (e.g., serum albumin), sorbitan esters, oleic acid, lecithin,amino acids (e.g., glycine), buffers, salts, sugars, or sugar alcohols.Aerosols generally are prepared from isotonic solutions.

Liquid dosage forms for oral administration include pharmaceuticallyacceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups,and elixirs. In addition to the active ingredients, the liquid dosageforms may contain inert diluents commonly used in the art (e.g., wateror other solvents), solubilizing agents, and emulsifiers (e.g., ethylalcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzylalcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, anddimethylformamide), oils (e.g., cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ,olive, castor, and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol,polyethylene glycols, fatty acid esters of sorbitan, and mixturesthereof. Besides inert diluents, the oral pharmaceutical compositionscan also include adjuvants such as wetting agents, emulsifying andsuspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents.

Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous oroleaginous suspensions may be formulated according to the known artusing suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. Thesterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectablesolution, suspension, or emulsion in a nontoxic parenterally acceptablediluent or solvent, such as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among theacceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water,Ringer's solution, U.S.P., and isotonic sodium chloride solution. Inaddition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solventor suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil can beemployed, including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fattyacids such as oleic acid are used in the preparation of injectables. Incertain embodiments, the compounds or particles are suspended in acarrier fluid comprising 1% (w/v) sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and0.1% (v/v) TWEEN 80.

The injectable formulations can be sterilized, for example, byfiltration through a bacteria-retaining filter, or by incorporatingsterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid pharmaceuticalcompositions which can be dissolved or dispersed in sterile water orother sterile injectable medium prior to use.

Pharmaceutical compositions for rectal or vaginal administration can besuppositories which can be prepared by mixing the compounds or particleswith suitable non-irritating excipients or carriers such as cocoabutter, polyethylene glycol, or a suppository wax which are solids atambient temperature but liquids at body temperature and thus melt in therectum or vaginal cavity and release the compounds or particles.

Solid dosage forms for oral administration include capsules, tablets,pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the compoundsor particles are mixed with at least one inert, pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipient, such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate,and/or a) fillers or extenders, such as starches, lactose, sucrose,glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid; b) binders, such ascarboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidinone,sucrose, and acacia; c) humectants, such as glycerol; d) disintegratingagents, such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch,alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate; e) solutionretarding agents, such as paraffin; f) absorption accelerators, such asquaternary ammonium compounds; g) wetting agents, such as cetyl alcoholand glycerol monostearate; h) absorbents, such as kaolin and bentoniteclay; i) lubricants, such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate,solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate; and mixtures thereof.In the case of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage form may alsocomprise buffering agents.

Solid pharmaceutical compositions of a similar type may also be employedas fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using suchexcipients as lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weightpolyethylene glycols and the like.

The solid dosage forms of tablets, dragees, capsules, pills, andgranules can be prepared with coatings and shells such as entericcoatings and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical formulatingart. They may optionally contain opacifying agents and can also be of apharmaceutical composition that they release the active ingredient(s)only, or preferentially, in a certain part of the intestinal tract,optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of embedding pharmaceuticalcompositions which can be used include polymeric substances and waxes.

Solid pharmaceutical compositions of a similar type may also be employedas fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using suchexcipients as lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weightpolyethylene glycols and the like.

Dosage forms for topical or transdermal administration of an inventivepharmaceutical composition include ointments, pastes, creams, lotions,gels, powders, solutions, sprays, inhalants, or patches. The compoundsor particles are admixed under sterile conditions with apharmaceutically acceptable carrier and any needed preservatives orbuffers as may be required. Ophthalmic formulation, ear drops, and eyedrops are also contemplated as being within the scope of this invention.

The ointments, pastes, creams, and gels may contain, in addition to thecompounds or particles of the invention, excipients such as animal andvegetable fats, oils, waxes, paraffins, starch, tragacanth, cellulosederivatives, polyethylene glycols, silicones, bentonites, silicic acid,talc, and zinc oxide, or mixtures thereof.

Powders and sprays can contain, in addition to the compounds orparticles of the invention, excipients, such as lactose, talc, silicicacid, aluminum hydroxide, calcium silicates, and polyamide powder, ormixtures thereof. Sprays can additionally contain customary propellants,such as chlorofluorohydrocarbons.

Transdermal patches have the added advantage of providing controlleddelivery of a compound to the body. Such dosage forms can be made bydissolving or dispensing the compounds or particles in a proper medium.Absorption enhancers can also be used to increase the flux of thecompounds or particles across the skin. The rate can be controlled byeither providing a rate controlling membrane or by dispersing thecompounds or particles in a polymer matrix or gel.

The compound of the invention may be provided in an effective amount inthe pharmaceutical composition. The particles of the invention thatcomprise a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention) mayalso be provided in an effective amount in the pharmaceuticalcomposition. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is atherapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effectiveamount is a prophylactically effective amount. In certain embodiments,the effective amount is an amount useful for the treatment and/orprevention of a respiratory tract disease described herein. Theeffective amount of the compound or particle in the pharmaceuticalcomposition may be useful for the treatment and/or prevention of therespiratory tract disease as a single agent or in combination with oneor more pharmaceutical agents described herein. In certain embodiments,the effective amount is an amount useful for inhibiting the activity ofa bacterial, viral, fungal, or protozoan enzyme. In certain embodiments,the effective amount is an amount useful for killing a bacterium, virus,fungus, or protozoon, or inhibiting the growth of a bacterium, virus,fungus, or protozoon. An effective amount of a compound may vary fromabout 0.001 mg/kg to about 1000 mg/kg in one or more doseadministrations for one or several days (depending on the mode ofadministration). In certain embodiments, the effective amount per dosevaries from about 0.001 mg/kg to about 1000 mg/kg, from about 0.01 mg/kgto about 750 mg/kg, from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 500 mg/kg, from about1.0 mg/kg to about 250 mg/kg, and from about 10.0 mg/kg to about 150mg/kg. The concentration and/or amount of any pharmaceutical agent to beadministered to a subject may be readily determined by one of ordinaryskill in the art. Known methods are also available to assay local tissueconcentrations, diffusion rates from particles and local blood flowbefore and after administration of the therapeutic formulation.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may have any suitableosmolarity. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition has anosmolarity of at least about 0 mOsm/L, at least about 25 mOsm/L, atleast about 50 mOsm/L, at least about 100 mOsm/L, at least about 200mOsm/L, or at least about 310 mOsm/L. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical composition has an osmolarity of less than about 310mOsm/L, less than about 200 mOsm/L, less than about 100 mOsm/L, lessthan about 50 mOsm/L, less than about 25 mOsm/L, or less than about 5mOsm/L. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible(e.g., an osmolarity of at least about 0 mOsm/L and less than about 50mOsm/L). Other ranges are also possible. The osmolarity of thepharmaceutical composition can be varied by changing, for example, theconcentration of salts present in the solvent of the pharmaceuticalcomposition.

The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may include one or morepharmaceutical agents described herein, such as a compound of theinvention. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositionincludes a plurality of particles of the invention that comprise one ormore pharmaceutical agents in the core and/or coating of the particles.In some embodiments, the ratio of the weight of each one of thepharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of the one or moresurface-altering agents (e.g., PLURONIC® F127) present in thepharmaceutical composition is greater than or equal to about 1:100,greater than or equal to about 1:30, greater than or equal to about1:10, greater than or equal to about 1:3, greater than or equal to about1:1, greater than or equal to about 3:1, greater than or equal to about10:1, greater than or equal to about 30:1, or greater than or equal toabout 100:1. In some embodiments, the ratio of the weight of each one ofthe pharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of the one or moresurface-altering agents in a pharmaceutical composition is less thanabout 100:1, less than about 30:1, less than about 10:1, less than about3:1, less than about 1:1, less than about 1:3: less than about 1:10,less than about 1:30, or less than about 1:100. Combinations of theabove-noted ranges are possible (e.g., a ratio of greater than or equalto about 1:1 and less than about 10:1). Other ranges are also possible.In certain embodiments, the ratio is about 1:1, about 2:1, or about10:1. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention includes the above-noted ranges for the ratio of the weight ofeach one of the pharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of theone or more surface-altering agents during a formation process and/or adilution process described herein. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical composition includes the above-noted ranges for the ratioof the weight of each one of the pharmaceutical agents to the weight ofeach one of the one or more surface-altering agents immediately prior tothe pharmaceutical composition being administered to a subject orcontacted with a biological sample. The pharmaceutical agent may bepresent in the pharmaceutical composition of the invention in anysuitable amount, e.g., at least about 0.01 wt %, at least about 0.1 wt%, at least about 1 wt %, at least about 5 wt %, at least about 10 wt %,at least about 30 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In some cases,the pharmaceutical agent may be present in the pharmaceuticalcomposition at less than about 30 wt %, less than about 10 wt %, lessthan about 5 wt %, less than about 2 wt %, or less than about 1 wt % ofthe pharmaceutical composition. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., present in an amount of at least about0.1 wt % and less than about 10 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition).Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is about 0.1-2 wt % of the pharmaceuticalcomposition. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is about2-20 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, thepharmaceutical agent is about 0.2 wt %, about 0.4 wt %, about 1 wt %,about 2 wt %, about 5 wt %, or about 10 wt % of the pharmaceuticalcomposition.

The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may also include achelating agent. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositionincludes a plurality of particles of the invention that comprise thechelating agent in the core and/or coating of the particles. Allchelating agents described herein are contemplated as being within thescope of this invention. In certain embodiments, the chelating agent isEDTA. In certain embodiments, the chelating agent is a salt of EDTA. Incertain embodiments, the chelating agent is disodium EDTA. The chelatingagent may be present at a suitable concentration in a pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention. In certain embodiments, the concentrationof the chelating agent is greater than or equal to about 0.0003 wt %,greater than or equal to about 0.001 wt %, greater than or equal toabout 0.003 wt %, greater than or equal to about 0.01 wt %, greater thanor equal to about 0.03 wt %, greater than or equal to about 0.05 wt %,greater than or equal to about 0.1 wt %, greater than or equal to about0.3 wt %, greater than or equal to about 1 wt %, or greater than orequal to about 3 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In certainembodiments, the concentration of the chelating agent is less than about3 wt %, less than about 1 wt %, less than about 0.3 wt %, less thanabout 0.1 wt %, less than about 0.05 wt %, less than about 0.03 wt %,less than about 0.01 wt %, less than about 0.003 wt %, less than about0.001 wt %, or less than about 0.0003 wt % of the pharmaceuticalcomposition. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g.,a concentration of the chelating agent of greater than or equal to about0.01 wt % and less than about 0.3 wt % of the pharmaceuticalcomposition). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments,the concentration of the chelating agent is about 0.001-0.1 wt %, about0.005 wt %, about 0.01 wt %, about 0.05 wt %, or about 0.1 wt %, of thepharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, a chelating agent maybe present in a pharmaceutical composition in one or more of theabove-noted ranges during a formation process and/or a dilution processdescribed herein. In certain embodiments, a chelating agent may bepresent in a pharmaceutical composition in one or more of theabove-noted ranges immediately prior to the pharmaceutical compositionbeing administered to a subject or contacted with a biological sample.

The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may include a tonicityagent to adjust the pharmaceutical composition to a desired osmolarity.In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes aplurality of particles of the invention that comprise a tonicity agentin the core and/or coating of the particles. In certain embodiments, thedesired osmolarity is isotonic and compatible with blood. In certainembodiments, the desired osmolarity is hypotonic. In certainembodiments, the desired osmolarity is hypertonic. All tonicity agentsdescribed herein are contemplated to being within the scope of theinvention. In certain embodiments, the tonicity agent is glycerin. Incertain embodiments, the tonicity agent is sodium chloride. In certainembodiments, a combination of one or more tonicity agents may be used.The tonicity agent may be present at a suitable concentration in apharmaceutical composition of the invention. In certain embodiments, theconcentration of the tonicity agent is greater than or equal to about0.003 wt %, greater than or equal to about 0.01 wt %, greater than orequal to about 0.03 wt %, greater than or equal to about 0.1 wt %,greater than or equal to about 0.3 wt %, greater than or equal to about1 wt %, greater than or equal to about 3 wt %, greater than or equal toabout 10 wt %, or greater than or equal to about 30 wt % of thepharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the concentration ofthe tonicity agent is less than about 30 wt %, less than about 10 wt %,less than about 3 wt %, less than about 1 wt %, less than about 0.3 wt%, less than about 0.1 wt %, less than about 0.03 wt %, less than about0.01 wt %, or less than about 0.003 wt % of the pharmaceuticalcomposition. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g.,a concentration of the tonicity agent of greater than or equal to about0.1 wt % and less than about 10 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition).Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, theconcentration of the tonicity agent is about 0.1-1%, about 0.5-3%, about0.25 wt %, about 0.45 wt %, 0.9 wt %, about 1.2 wt %, about 2.4 wt %, orabout 5 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, atonicity agent may be present in a pharmaceutical composition in one ormore of the above-noted ranges during a formation process and/or adilution process described herein. In certain embodiments, a tonicityagent may be present in a pharmaceutical composition immediately priorto the pharmaceutical composition being administered to a subject orcontacted with a biological sample.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition of the invention mayhave an osmolarity of at least about 0 mOsm/L, at least about 5 mOsm/L,at least about 25 mOsm/L, at least about 50 mOsm/L, at least about 100mOsm/L, at least about 200 mOsm/L, at least about 310 mOsm/L, or atleast about 450 mOsm/L. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention may have an osmolarity of less than about450 mOsm/L, less than about 310 mOsm/L, less than about 200 mOsm/L, lessthan about 100 mOsm/L, less than about 50 mOsm/L, less than about 25mOsm/L, or less than about 5 mOsm/L. Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an osmolarity of atleast about 0 mOsm/L and less than about 50 mOsm/L). Other ranges arealso possible.

It is appreciated in the art that the ionic strength of an inventivepharmaceutical composition that comprises a plurality of particles ofthe invention may affect the polydispersity of the plurality of theparticles. The ionic strength may also affect the colloidal stability ofthe plurality of the particles. For example, a relatively high ionicstrength of the pharmaceutical composition may cause the plurality ofparticles to coagulate and therefore may destabilize the pharmaceuticalcomposition. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition isstabilized by repulsive inter-particle forces. For example, theplurality of particles may be electrically or electrostatically charged.Two charged particles may repel each other, preventing collision andaggregation. When the repulsive inter-particle forces weaken or becomeattractive, the plurality of particles may start to aggregate. Forinstance, when the ionic strength of the pharmaceutical composition isincreased to a certain level, the charges (e.g., negative charges) ofthe plurality of particles may be neutralized by the oppositely chargedions present in the pharmaceutical composition (e.g., Na⁺ ions insolution). As a result, the plurality of particles may collide and bondto each other to form aggregates (e.g., clusters or flocs) of largersizes. The formed aggregates of particles may also differ in size, andthus the polydispersity of the pharmaceutical composition may alsoincrease. For example, an inventive pharmaceutical compositioncomprising similarly-sized particles may become a pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising particles having various sizes (e.g., due toaggregation) when the ionic strength of the pharmaceutical compositionis increased beyond a certain level. In the course of aggregation, theaggregates may grow in size and eventually settle to the bottom of thecontainer, and the pharmaceutical composition is considered colloidallyunstable. Once the plurality of particles in a pharmaceuticalcomposition form aggregates, it is usually difficult to disrupt theaggregates into individual particles.

Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention show unexpectedproperties in that, among other things, the presence of one or moreionic tonicity agents (e.g., a salt, such as NaCl) in the pharmaceuticalcompositions at certain concentrations actually decreases or maintainsthe degree of aggregation of the particles present in the pharmaceuticalcompositions, and/or does not significantly increase aggregation. Incertain embodiments, the polydispersity of the pharmaceuticalcomposition decreases, is relatively constant, or does not change by anappreciable amount upon addition of one or more ionic tonicity agentsinto the pharmaceutical composition. For example, in some embodiments,the polydispersity of a pharmaceutical composition is relativelyconstant in the presence of added ionic strength and/or when the addedionic strength of the pharmaceutical composition is kept relativelyconstant or increased (e.g., during a formation and/or dilution processdescribed herein). In certain embodiments, when the ionic strengthincreases by at least 50%, the polydispersity increases by less thanabout 300%, less than about 100%, less than about 30%, less than about10%, less than about 3%, or less than about 1%. In certain embodiments,when the ionic strength is increased by at least 50%, the polydispersityincreases by greater than or equal to about 1%, greater than or equal toabout 3%, greater than or equal to about 10%, greater than or equal toabout 30%, or greater than or equal to about 100%. Combinations of theabove-noted ranges are possible (e.g., an increase in polydispersity ofless than 30% and greater than or equal to 3%). Other ranges are alsopossible.

The ionic strength of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention maybe controlled (e.g., increased, decreased, or maintained) through avariety of means, such as the addition of one or more ionic tonicityagents (e.g., a salt, such as NaCl) to the pharmaceutical composition.In certain embodiments, the ionic strength of a pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention is greater than or equal to about 0.0003 M,greater than or equal to about 0.001 M, greater than or equal to about0.003 M, greater than or equal to about 0.01 M, greater than or equal toabout 0.03 M, greater than or equal to about 0.1 M, greater than orequal to about 0.3 M, greater than or equal to about 1 M, greater thanor equal to about 3 M, or greater than or equal to about 10 M. Incertain embodiments, the ionic strength of a pharmaceutical compositionof the invention is less than about 10 M, less than about 3 M, less thanabout 1 M, less than about 0.3 M, less than about 0.1 M, less than about0.03 M, less than about 0.01 M, less than about 0.003 M, less than about0.001 M, or less than about 0.0003 M. Combinations of the above-notedranges are possible (e.g., an ionic strength of greater than or equal toabout 0.01 M and less than about 1 M). Other ranges are also possible.In certain embodiments, the ionic strength of a pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention is about 0.1 M, about 0.15 M, or about 0.3M.

In certain embodiments, the polydispersity of a pharmaceuticalcomposition does not change upon addition of one or more ionic tonicityagents into the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, thepolydispersity does not significantly increase upon addition of one ormore ionic tonicity agents into the pharmaceutical composition. Incertain embodiments, the polydispersity increases to a level describedherein upon addition of one or more ionic tonicity agents into thepharmaceutical composition.

The polydispersity of an inventive pharmaceutical composition thatcomprises a plurality of particles of the invention may be measured bythe polydispersity index (PDI). In certain embodiments, the PDI of thepharmaceutical composition is less than about 1, less than about 0.8,less than about 0.6, less than about 0.4, less than about 0.3, less thanabout 0.2, less than about 0.15, less than about 0.1, less than about0.05, less than about 0.01, or less than about 0.005. In certainembodiments, the PDI of the pharmaceutical composition is greater thanor equal to about 0.005, greater than or equal to about 0.01, greaterthan or equal to about 0.05, greater than or equal to about 0.1, greaterthan or equal to about 0.15, greater than or equal to about 0.2, greaterthan or equal to about 0.3, greater than or equal to about 0.4, greaterthan or equal to about 0.6, greater than or equal to about 0.8, orgreater than or equal to about 1. Combinations of the above-noted rangesare possible (e.g., a PDI of greater than or equal to about 0.1 and lessthan about 0.5). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments,the PDI of the pharmaceutical composition is about 0.1, about 0.15, orabout 0.2. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition ishighly dispersible and does not tend to form aggregates. Even when theparticles do form aggregates, the aggregates may be easily broken upinto individual particles without rigorously agitating thepharmaceutical composition.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be sterile before orupon administration of the pharmaceutical composition to a subject, orbefore or upon contacting with a biological sample. A sterilepharmaceutical composition is essentially free of pathogenicmicroorganisms, such as bacteria, microbes, fungi, viruses, spores,yeasts, molds, and others generally associated with infections. Thepharmaceutical composition of the invention may be subject to an asepticprocess and/or other sterilization process before or upon administeredto the subject, or before or upon contacting with a biological sample.An aseptic process typically involves flash-heating a pharmaceuticalcomposition or components thereof. An aseptic process typically involvesexpensive equipment (such as clean rooms, bacteria retaining filters,dry or steam heat) and laborious handling. Examples of othersterilization methods include radiation sterilization (e.g., gamma,electron, or x-ray radiation), heat sterilization, sterile filtration,and ethylene oxide sterilization. Unlike other sterilization methods,radiation sterilization has the advantage of high penetrating abilityand instantaneous effects, without the need to control temperature,pressure, vacuum, or humidity in some instances. In certain embodiments,the radiation used to sterilize the pharmaceutical composition is gammaradiation. Gamma radiation may be applied in an amount sufficient tokill most or substantially all of the microbes in or on thepharmaceutical composition. The temperature of the pharmaceuticalcomposition and the rate of radiation may be relatively constant duringthe entire gamma radiation period. Gamma irradiation may be performed atany suitable temperature (e.g., ambient temperature, about 40° C., orbetween about 30 to about 50° C.). In certain embodiments, the gammairradiation is performed at about 40° C.

In some embodiments, when a sterilization process is performed on aninventive pharmaceutical composition that comprises a plurality ofparticles of the invention, the sterilization process does not: (1)significantly change the particle size of the particles; (2)significantly change the integrity of the active ingredient (such as acompound of the invention), if any; and (3) generate pharmaceuticallyunacceptable concentrations of impurities during or following thesterilization process. In certain embodiments, the impurities generatedduring or following the sterilization process are degradants of theactive ingredient. In certain embodiments, the sterilization processresults in the presence of one or more degradants in the pharmaceuticalcomposition, each of which is independently present at at less thanabout 10 wt %, less than about 3 wt %, less than about 2 wt %, less thanabout 1 wt %, less than about 0.8 wt %, less than about 0.6 wt %, lessthan about 0.4 wt %, less than about 0.3 wt %, less than about 0.2 wt %,less than about 0.1 wt %, less than about 0.03 wt %, less than about0.01 wt %, less than about 0.003 wt %, or less than about 0.001 wt % ofthe active ingredient before degradation. In some embodiments, thesterilization process results in the presence of one or more degradantsin the pharmaceutical composition, each of which is independentlypresent at greater than or equal to about 0.001 wt %, greater than orequal to about 0.003 wt %, greater than or equal to about 0.01 wt %,greater than or equal to about 0.03 wt %, greater than or equal to about0.1 wt %, greater than or equal to about 0.3 wt %, greater than or equalto about 1 wt %, greater than or equal to about 3 wt %, or greater thanor equal to about 10 wt % of the active ingredient before degradation.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g.,each one of the one or more degradants is independently present at lessthan about 1 wt % and greater than or equal to about 0.01 wt % of theactive ingredient before degradation). Other ranges are also possible.In some embodiments, one or more additives are included in thepharmaceutical composition of the invention to help achieve a relativelylow amount of the one or more degradants. In certain embodiments, theadditive is glycerin.

When gamma irradiation is used in a sterilization process, thecumulative amount of the gamma radiation used may vary. In certainembodiments, the cumulative amount of the gamma radiation is greaterthan or equal to about 0.1 kGray, greater than or equal to about 0.3kGray, greater than or equal to about 1 kGray, greater than or equal toabout 3 kGray, greater than or equal to about 10 kGray, greater than orequal to about 30 kGray, greater than or equal to about 100 kGray, orgreater than or equal to about 300 kGray. In certain embodiments, thecumulative amount of the gamma radiation is less than about 0.1 kGray,less than about 0.3 kGray, less than about 1 kGray, less than about 3kGray, less than about 10 kGray, less than about 30 kGray, less thanabout 100 kGray, or less than about 300 kGray. Combinations of theabove-noted ranges are possible (e.g., a cumulative amount of the gammaradiation of greater than or equal to about 1 kGray and less than about30 kGray). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments,multiple doses of radiation are utilized to achieve a desired cumulativeradiation dosage.

The inventive particles and pharmaceutical compositions comprising apharmaceutical agent may improve or increase the delivery of thepharmaceutical agent to a target tissue of the respiratory tract of asubject. The delivery of the pharmaceutical agent may be characterizedin various ways, such as the exposure, duration, concentration, andbioavailability of the pharmaceutical agent. The exposure of apharmaceutical agent in a target tissue of the respiratory tract of asubject may be defined as the area under the curve (AUC) of theconcentration of the pharmaceutical agent in the target tissue of therespiratory tract against time after administration. In someembodiments, the exposure of the pharmaceutical agent increases due tothe coating of the particles that renders the particles mucuspenetrating, compared to control particles comprising the pharmaceuticalagent that have a similar average size as the coated particles but donot include the coating. In certain embodiments, the control particle isthe core of a particle of the invention. In some embodiments, theparticles and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention increasethe exposure of the pharmaceutical agent by at least about 10%, at leastabout 30%, at least about 100%, at least about 3 fold, at least about 10fold, at least about 30 fold, at least about 100 fold, at least about300 fold, or at least about 1000 fold. In certain the particles, theparticles and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention increasethe exposure of the pharmaceutical agent by less than about 1000 fold,less than about 300 fold, less than about 100 fold, less than about 30fold, less than about 10 fold, less than about 3 fold, less than about100%, less than about 30%, or less than about 10%. Combinations of theabove-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an increase of at leastabout 10% and less than about 10 fold). Other ranges are also possible.In certain embodiments, the coating on the core of the particles of theinvention is present in a sufficient amount to increase the exposure ofthe pharmaceutical agent by an amount described herein when administeredin the pharmaceutical composition compared to the exposure of thepharmaceutical agent when administered as a core without the coating.

In general, an increase in exposure may be calculated by taking thedifference in the AUC measured in a target tissue of the respiratorytract between those of an inventive particle or pharmaceuticalcomposition and a control particle or pharmaceutical composition, anddividing the difference by the exposure of the control particle orpharmaceutical composition.

Exposure of a pharmaceutical agent may be measured in an appropriateanimal model (e.g. in a New Zealand white rabbit model). Theconcentration of a pharmaceutical agent and, when appropriate, itsmetabolite(s), in appropriate target tissue of the respiratory tracts orfluids is measured as a function of time after administration.

The concentration of a pharmaceutical agent in a target tissue of arespiratory tract of a subject may also be increased when thepharmaceutical agent is delivered (e.g., via inhalational administrationto the subject) using the particles and/or pharmaceutical compositionsof the invention. In some embodiments, the concentration of thepharmaceutical agent increases due to the coating of the particles thatrenders the particles mucus penetrating, compared to control particlescomprising the pharmaceutical agent that have a similar average size asthe coated particles but do not include the coating. In certainembodiments, the control particle is the core of a particle of theinvention. In certain embodiments, a dose of the particles and/orpharmaceutical compositions is administered, followed by the measurementof the concentration of the pharmaceutical agent in the target tissue ofthe respiratory tract. For purposes of comparison, the amount of thepharmaceutical agent included in the administered dose of the particlesand/or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be similar orsubstantially equal to the amount of the pharmaceutical agent includedin the administered dose of the control particles and/or pharmaceuticalcompositions. In certain embodiments, the concentration of thepharmaceutical agent in the tissue is measured at a certain timesubsequent to the administration (“time post-dose”) of a dose of theparticles and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention or of thecontrol particles and/or pharmaceutical compositions. In certainembodiments, the time when the concentration is measured is about 1 min,about 10 min, about 30 min, about 1 h, about 2 h, about 3 h, about 6 h,about 12 h, about 18 h, about 24 h, about 36 h, or about 48 h post-dose.In some embodiments, the particles and/or pharmaceutical compositions ofthe invention increase the concentration of a pharmaceutical agent inthe target tissue of the respiratory tract by at least about 10%, atleast about 30%, at least about 100%, at least about 300%, at leastabout 10 fold, at least about 30 fold, at least about 100 fold, at leastabout 1000 fold, at least about 10⁴ fold, at least about 10⁵ fold, or atleast about 106 fold. In some embodiments, the particles and/orpharmaceutical compositions of the invention increase the concentrationof a pharmaceutical agent in the target tissue of the respiratory tractby less than about 106 fold, less than about 105 fold, less than about10⁴ fold, 1000 fold, less than about 100 fold, less than about 10 fold,less than about 300%, less than about 100%, less than about 30%, or lessthan about 10%. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are alsopossible (e.g., an increase of greater than or equal to about 10% andless than about 100%). Other ranges are also possible. In certainembodiments, the coating on the core of the particles of the inventionis present in a sufficient amount to increase the concentration of thepharmaceutical agent by an amount described herein when administered inthe pharmaceutical composition compared to the exposure of thepharmaceutical agent when administered as a core without the coating. Incertain embodiments, the coating of the inventive particle orpharmaceutical composition that comprises a pharmaceutical agent ispresent in a sufficient amount to increase the concentration of thepharmaceutical agent in an target tissue of the respiratory tract afterat least 10 minutes, at least 30 minutes, at least 1 hour, at least 2hours, at least 3 hours, at least 6 hours, at least 12 hours, or atleast 24 hours after administration of the inventive particle orpharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the coating of theinventive particle or pharmaceutical composition that comprises apharmaceutical agent is present in a sufficient amount to increase theconcentration of the pharmaceutical agent in a target tissue of arespiratory tract after less than 24 hours, less than 12 hours, lessthan 6 hours, less than 3 hours, less than 2 hours, less than 1 hour,less than 30 minutes, or less than 10 minutes after administration ofthe inventive particle or pharmaceutical composition. Combinations ofthe above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., the concentrationof the pharmaceutical agent increases after at least 10 minutes and lessthan 2 hours after administration). Other ranges are also possible. Incertain embodiments, the coating of the inventive particle orpharmaceutical composition that comprises a pharmaceutical agent ispresent in a sufficient amount to increase the concentration of thepharmaceutical agent in a target tissue of a respiratory tract afterabout 30 minutes after administration of inventive particle orpharmaceutical composition.

Concentration of a pharmaceutical agent, and, when appropriate, of itsmetabolite(s), in a target tissue of a respiratory tract, may bemeasured as a function of time in vivo using an appropriate animalmodel. One method of determining the concentration of a pharmaceuticalagent involves dissecting of the respiratory tract to isolate the targettissue. The concentration of the pharmaceutical agent in the targettissues may then be determined by HPLC or LC/MS analysis.

Also encompassed by the invention are kits (e.g., pharmaceutical packs).The kit of the invention may comprise an inventive compound, particle,or pharmaceutical composition, and a container (e.g., a vial, ampule,bottle, syringe, and/or dispenser package, or other suitable container).In some embodiments, the kit further includes a second containercomprising a pharmaceutical excipient for dilution or suspension of aninventive compound, particle, or pharmaceutical composition. In someembodiments, the inventive compound, particle, or pharmaceuticalcomposition provided in the first container and the second container arecombined to form one unit dosage form. The kits may be useful intreating and/or preventing a disease (e.g., a respiratory tract disease)in a subject. The kits may also be useful in delivering at least onepharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention) to a subject.In certain embodiments, the kits are useful in increasing thebioavailability of the pharmaceutical agent in the subject. In certainembodiments, the kits are useful in increasing the concentration of thepharmaceutical agent in the subject. In certain embodiments, the kitsare useful in increasing the exposure of the pharmaceutical agent in thesubject. In certain embodiments, the kits further include instructionsfor administering the compound, particle, or pharmaceutical compositionof the invention. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructionsprovide for treating and/or preventing a disease (e.g., a respiratorytract disease). The kit may include one or more additionalpharmaceutical agents described herein.

Methods of Preparing the Particles and Pharmaceutical Compositionsthereof

In one aspect, the present invention provides methods of preparing theparticles of the invention. Methods of preparing similar particles havebeen described in U.S. Published Patent Application No. 2013/0316006A1,published on Nov. 28, 2013, which is incorporated by reference herein inits entirety.

The core of the particle may be formed by any suitable method. Suitablemethods may include, for example, top-down techniques, i.e. techniquesbased on size reduction of relatively large particles into smallerparticles (e.g., milling or homogenization) or bottom-up techniques,i.e. techniques based on the growth of particles from smaller particlesor individual molecules (e.g., precipitation or spray-freezing intoliquid).

In some embodiments, the core of the particle may be coated with acoating. For example, the core may be provided or formed in a firststep, and then the core may be coated in a second step. In someembodiments, the core particle is formed and coated substantiallysimultaneously (e.g., in a single step).

In some embodiments, the particle is formed by a method that involvesusing a formulation process, a milling process, and/or a dilutionprocess. In certain embodiments, a method of forming the particleincludes a milling process, optionally with a formulation process and/ora dilution process. A formulation process may be used to form asuspension comprising a core material, one or more surface-alteringagents, and other components, such as solvents, tonicity agents,chelating agents, salts, and/or buffers (e.g., a sodium citrate andcitric acid buffer), each of which is as described herein. Theformulation process may be performed using a formulation vessel. Thecore material and other components may be added into the formulationvessel at the same time or different times. A mixture of the corematerial and/or one or more other components may be stirred and/orshaken, or otherwise agitated in the vessel to facilitate suspending thecomponents to form the suspension. The temperature and/or pressure ofthe core material, other components, and/or mixture may also beindividually increased or decreased to facilitate the suspendingprocess. In some embodiments, the core material and other components areprocessed as described herein in the formulation vessel under an inertatmosphere (e.g., nitrogen or argon) and/or protected from light. Thesuspension obtained from the formulation vessel may be subsequentlysubject to a milling process which may be followed by a dilutionprocess.

In some embodiments involving a core comprising a solid material, amilling process may be used to reduce the size of the solid material toform particles in a micrometer to nanometer size range. The millingprocess may be performed using a mill or other suitable apparatus. Dryand wet milling processes such as jet milling, cryo-milling, ballmilling, media milling, sonication, and homogenization are known and canbe used in methods of the invention. For example, in a wet millingprocess, a suspension of the solid material to be used to form the core(“core material”) is agitated with or without excipients to reduce thesize of the core to be formed. Dry milling is a process wherein the corematerial is mixed with milling media with or without excipients toreduce the size of the core to be formed. In a cyro-milling process, asuspension of the core material is mixed with milling media with orwithout excipients under cooled temperatures. In certain embodiments,when surface-altering agents are employed, a suspension comprisingcoated particles is obtained from the milling process. In certainembodiments, when surface-altering agents are not employed, a suspensioncomprising uncoated particles is obtained from the milling process.

The suspension of particles (coated or uncoated) of the inventionobtained from a milling process may be further processed with a dilutionprocess. A dilution process may be used to achieve a target dosingconcentration by diluting a suspension of particles that were formedduring a milling process, with or without surface-altering agents and/orother components. In certain embodiments, when a suspension of coatedparticles that comprise a first surface-altering agent is processed witha dilution process involving a second surface-altering agent, asuspension of coated particles that comprise the second surface-alteringagent is obtained from the dilution process. In certain embodiments,when a suspension of coated particles that comprise a surface-alteringagent is processed with a dilution process involving no or the samesurface-altering agent, a suspension of coated particles that comprisethe surface-altering agent is obtained from the dilution process. Incertain embodiments, when a suspension of uncoated particles isprocessed with a dilution process involving a surface-altering agent, asuspension of coated particles comprising the surface-altering agent isobtained from the dilution process. The dilution process may beperformed using a product vessel or any other suitable apparatus. Incertain embodiments, the suspension of the particles is diluted, i.e.,mixed or otherwise processed with a diluent, in the product vessel. Thediluent may contain solvents, surface-altering agents, tonicity agents,chelating agents, salts, or a combination thereof, as described herein.The suspension and the diluent may be added into the product vessel atthe same time or different times. In certain embodiments when thesuspension is obtained from a milling process involving milling media,the milling media may be separated from the suspension before thesuspension is added into the product vessel. The suspension, thediluent, or the mixture of the suspension and the diluent may be stirredand/or shaken, or otherwise agitated, to form the particles and/orpharmaceutical compositions of the invention. The temperature and/orpressure of the suspension, the diluent, or the mixture may also beindividually increased or decreased to form the coated particles. Insome embodiments, the suspension and the diluent are processed in theproduct vessel under an inert atmosphere (e.g., nitrogen or argon)and/or protected from light.

In some embodiments, the core and/or coated particles may be produced bymilling of a solid material (e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) in thepresence of one or more surface-altering agents. Small particles of asolid material may require the presence of one or more surface-alteringagents, which may function as a stabilizer in some embodiments, in orderto stabilize a suspension of particles without agglomeration oraggregation in a liquid solution. In some such embodiments, thestabilizer may act as a surface-altering agent, forming the coatedparticles of the invention.

As described herein, a method of forming the core and/or the coatedparticles, may involve choosing a surface-altering agent that issuitable for both milling and forming a coating on the core, wherein thecoating renders the particle mucus penetrating. For example, asdescribed in more detail below, it has been demonstrated that particlesof pyrene that were produced by milling of pyrene in the presence ofcertain PLURONICS® polymers had and had an average size of about 200-500nm were capable of penetrating physiological mucus samples at the samerate as well-established PEGylated polymeric mucus-penetrating particles(MPPs). Interestingly, it was observed that only a subset of PLURONICS®polymers tested were suitable for both milling and forming the coatingthat renders the particle mucus penetrating.

In a wet milling process, milling may be performed in a dispersion(e.g., an aqueous dispersion) containing at least one surface-alteringagent, a grinding medium, a solid to be milled (e.g., a solidpharmaceutical agent), and a solvent. The solvent described hereinincludes a single solvent or a mixture of different solvents. Anysuitable amount of a surface-altering agent can be included in thesolvent. In some embodiments, the surface-altering agent may be presentin the solvent in an amount of at least about 0.001% (wt % or % weightto volume (w:v)), at least about 0.01%, at least about 0.1%, at leastabout 1%, at least about 3%, at least about 10%, at least about 30%, orat least about 60% of the solvent. In some cases, the surface-alteringagent may be present in the solvent in an amount of about 100% (e.g., inan instance where the surface-altering agent is the solvent). In otherembodiments, the surface-altering agent may be present in the solvent inan amount of less than about 100%, less than about 60%, less than about30%, less than about 10%, less than about 3%, or less than about 1% ofthe solvent. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are alsopossible (e.g., an amount of less than about 3% and at least about 1% ofthe solvent). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments,the surface-altering agent is present in the solvent in an amount ofabout 0.01-2%, about 0.2-20%, about 0.1%, about 0.4%, about 1%, about2%, about 5%, or about 10% of the solvent.

The particular range chosen may influence factors that may affect theability of the particles to penetrate mucus such as the stability of thecoating of the surface-altering agent on the particle surface, theaverage thickness of the coating of the surface-altering agent on theparticles, the orientation of the surface-altering agent on theparticles, the density of the surface altering agent on the particles,the ratio of the surface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent, theconcentration of the pharmaceutical agent, the size, dispersibility, andpolydispersity of the particles formed, and the morphology of theparticles formed.

The pharmaceutical agent may be present in the solvent in any suitableamount. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is present in anamount of at least about 0.001% (wt % or % weight to volume (w:v)), atleast about 0.01%, at least about 0.1%, at least about 1%, at leastabout 3%, at least about 10%, at least about 30%, or at least about 60%of the solvent. In some cases, the pharmaceutical agent may be presentin the solvent in an amount of less than about 100%, less than about60%, less than about 30%, less than about 10%, less than about 3%, orless than about 1% of the solvent. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., an amount of less than about 30% and atleast about 1% of the solvent).

The ratio of surface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent in a solventmay also vary. In some embodiments, the ratio of the surface-alteringagent to pharmaceutical agent is at least about 0.001:1 (weight ratio,molar ratio, or w:v), at least about 0.01:1, at least about 0.01:1, atleast about 1:1, at least about 2:1, at least about 3:1, at least about5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 30:1, at least about 100:1, orat least about 1000:1. In some embodiments, the ratio of thesurface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent is less than 1000:1(weight ratio, molar ratio, or w:v), less than about 100:1, less thanabout 30:1, less than about 10:1, less than about 5:1, less than about3:1, less than about 2:1, less than about 1:1, or less than about 0.1:1.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a ratioof at least about 5:1 and less than about 30:1). Other ranges are alsopossible.

The surface-altering agents described herein that may act as stabilizersmay be, for example, polymers or surfactants. Examples of polymersinclude those suitable for use in the coating of the particles of theinvention, such as poly(vinyl alcohol) and PLURONICS®. Examples ofsurfactants include L-α-phosphatidylcholine (PC),1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidycholine (DPPC), oleic acid, sorbitantrioleate, sorbitan mono-oleate, sorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, naturallecithin, oleyl polyoxyethylene ether, stearyl polyoxyethylene ether,lauryl polyoxyethylene ether, block copolymers of oxyethylene andoxypropylene, synthetic lecithin, diethylene glycol dioleate,tetrahydrofurfuryl oleate, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, glycerylmonooleate, glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl monoricinoleate, cetylalcohol, stearyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, cetyl pyridiniumchloride, benzalkonium chloride, olive oil, glyceryl monolaurate, cornoil, cotton seed oil, and sunflower seed oil.

A stabilizer used for milling may form the coating of a particle of theinvention, wherein the coating renders the particle mucus penetrating.The stabilizer may also be exchanged with one or more othersurface-altering agents after the particle has been formed. For example,a first stabilizer/surface-altering agent may be used during a millingprocess and may form a first coating of the particle of the invention,and all or part of the first stabilizer/surface-altering agent may thenbe exchanged with a second stabilizer/surface-altering agent to form asecond coating of the particle. In some embodiments, the secondstabilizer/surface-altering agent may render the particle mucuspenetrating more than the first stabilizer/surface-altering agent. Insome embodiments, a particle comprising multiple coatings that includemultiple surface-altering agents is formed by a method of the invention.

Any suitable grinding medium can be used for milling. In someembodiments, a ceramic and/or polymeric material and/or a metal can beused. Examples of suitable materials include zirconium oxide, siliconcarbide, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, zirconium silicate, yttriumoxide, glass, alumina, alpha-alumina, aluminum oxide, polystyrene,poly(methyl methacrylate), titanium, and steel. A grinding medium mayhave any suitable size. For example, the grinding medium may have anaverage diameter of at least about 0.1 mm, at least about 0.2 mm, atleast about 0.5 mm, at least about 0.8 mm, at least about 1 mm, at leastabout 2 mm, or at least about 5 mm. In some cases, the grinding mediummay have an average diameter of less than about 5 mm, less than about 2mm, less than about 1 mm, less than about 0.8, less than about 0.5 mm,or less than about 0.2 mm. Combinations of the above-referenced rangesare also possible (e.g., an average diameter of at least about 0.5millimeters and less than about 1 mm). Other ranges are also possible.

A solvent may be used for milling. The choice of the solvent suitablefor milling may depend on factors like the solid material (e.g., a solidpharmaceutical agent) being milled, the particular type ofstabilizer/surface-altering agent (e.g., one that may render theparticle mucus penetrating), and the grinding material. The solventsuitable for milling may be one of those solvents that do notsubstantially dissolve the solid material or the grinding material, butdissolve the stabilizer/surface-altering agent to a suitable degree.Examples of the solvents suitable for milling include water, aqueoussolutions, buffered solutions, alcohols (e.g., ethanol, methanol, andbutanol), and mixtures thereof, each of which may optionally includeother components, such as one or more pharmaceutical excipients,polymers, pharmaceutical agents, salts, preservative agents, viscositymodifiers, tonicity modifiers, taste masking agents, antioxidants, andpH modifiers. In some embodiments, the solvent suitable for milling isan organic solvent.

A pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of theinvention) may have a suitable solubility in a solvent suitable formilling, such as a solubility in one or more ranges described herein foraqueous solubility or for solubility in a coating solution. Apharmaceutical agent having a relatively low solubility in a solvent(e.g., water or a coating solution) may be preferred because a millingprocess described herein typically requires a material (e.g., apharmaceutical agent) to be in a solid form in order for the material tobe milled. In some cases, if the material to be milled has a relativelyhigh soluble in a solvent (e.g., water or a coating solution) used inthe milling process, milling may not be conducted because significant orcomplete dissolution of the material to be milled in the solvent willoccur. In certain embodiments, a relatively high solubility of a solidmaterial (e.g., a solid pharmaceutical agent) in a solvent is at leastabout 1 mg/mL, at least about 3 mg/mL, or at least about 10 mg/mL at 25°C. In certain embodiments, a relatively low solubility of a substance(e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) in a solvent is less than about 1 mg/mL,less than about 0.3 mg/mL, less than about 0.1 mg/mL, less than about0.03 mg/mL, less than about 0.01 mg/mL, less than about 0.003 mg/mL, orless than about 0.001 mg/mL at 25° C. The solid material may have theseor other ranges of solubilities at any point throughout the pH range(e.g., from pH 1 to pH 14). A pharmaceutical agent that has a relativelyhigh solubility in the solvent used in the milling process may bemodified to form a prodrug of the pharmaceutical agent. The prodrug mayhave a relatively low solubility and thus may be suitable for themilling process. Upon or after the particles or pharmaceuticalcompositions comprising the prodrug are administered to a subject, theprodrug may be converted and form or, in other words, “release,” thepharmaceutical agent.

In other embodiments, the core and/or coated particles may be formed byan emulsification process or technique (emulsification) known in theart. See, e.g., U.S. Published Patent Application No. 2013/0316006A1,published on Nov. 28, 2013.

The core and/or coated particles may also be formed by a precipitationprocess or technique (precipitation). Precipitation techniques (e.g.,microprecipitation, nanoprecipitation, crystallization, and controlledcrystallization) may involve forming a first solution comprising thematerial that is to form the core (e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) and afirst solvent, wherein the material has a relatively high solubility inthe first solvent. The first solution may be added to a second solutioncomprising a second solvent that is an anti-solvent, in which thematerial has a relatively low solubility, thereby forming a plurality ofparticles comprising the material. In certain embodiments, the secondsolvent is miscible with the first solvent. In some embodiments, one ormore surface-altering agents and/or surfactants may be present in thefirst and/or second solutions. A coating may be formed during theprocess of precipitating the core (e.g., the coating of the particlesmay be formed substantially simultaneously when the precipitation isperformed) to form the coated particles of the invention.

In other embodiments, the core of the particles of the invention isfirst formed using a precipitation technique, following by coating ofthe core with a surface-altering agent to form the coated particles ofthe invention.

In some embodiments, a precipitation technique may be used to formpolymeric core of the particles of the invention with or without apharmaceutical agent. Generally, a precipitation technique involvesdissolving a polymer that is to form the core in a first solvent, in thepresence or absence of a pharmaceutical agent, to form a solution. Thesolution is then added to a second solvent that is an anti-solvent andis miscible with the first solvent, in the presence or absence of one ormore excipients, to form the core of the particles. In some embodiments,precipitation is useful for preparing a polymeric core comprising one ormore pharmaceutical agents having a relatively low aqueous solubility.

The precipitation described herein involves the use of a first solvent.Examples of suitable first solvents for precipitation include organicsolvents (e.g., acetone, acetonitrile, dimethylformamide,dimethysulfoxide, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 2-pyrrolidone, andtetrahydrofuran) and inorganic solvents.

The precipitation described herein also involves the use of a secondsolvent. In certain embodiments, the second solvent suitable forprecipitation is an anti-solvent. Examples of second solvents suitablefor precipitation include the solvents described herein that may be usedfor milling. In some embodiments, the second solvents suitable forprecipitation is water, an aqueous solution (e.g., a buffered solution),an alcohol (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanol, or butanol), or a mixturethereof, optionally including one or more other components, such aspharmaceutical excipients, polymers, and pharmaceutical agents.

Surface-altering agents for the emulsification and precipitationdescribed herein may be polymers or surfactants, including thesurface-altering agents described herein that may be used for milling.

Examples of polymers suitable for forming all or part of the core of theparticles of the invention by the emulsification or precipitationinclude the polymers (including copolymers) described herein.

In some embodiments, a precipitation technique may be used to formparticles comprised predominantly of a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., acompound of the invention). In certain embodiments, the particles of theinvention formed by the precipitation technique comprise predominantlyof a pharmaceutical agent that is a nanocrystal. Generally, such aprecipitation technique involves dissolving the pharmaceutical agentthat is to form the core in a first solvent, which is then added to asecond solvent that is an anti-solvent, in which the pharmaceuticalagent has a relatively low solubility, in the presence or absence of oneor more pharmaceutical excipients, to form the core or uncoatedparticle. In some embodiments, this technique may be useful forpreparing, for example, particles of pharmaceutical agents that areslightly soluble (1-10 mg/mL), very slightly soluble (0.1-1 mg/mL) orpractically insoluble (<0.1 mg/mL) in aqueous solutions (e.g., agentshaving a relatively low aqueous solubility).

A pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of theinvention) may have a suitable solubility in the first and secondsolvents suitable for precipitation, such as a solubility in one or moreranges described herein for aqueous solubility or for solubility in acoating solution. A pharmaceutical agent having a relatively highsolubility in the first solvent (e.g., an organic solvent) may bepreferred. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agentsubstantially or completely dissolves in the first solvent. Apharmaceutical agent having a relatively low solubility in the secondsolvent (e.g., water or a coating solution) may also be preferred. Incertain embodiments, the solubility of the pharmaceutical agent in amixture of the first and second solvents is lower than the solubility ofthe pharmaceutical agent in the first solvent. The relatively highsolubility and relatively low solubility are as described herein. Apharmaceutical agent that has a relatively high solubility in the secondsolvent may be modified to form a prodrug of the pharmaceutical agent.The prodrug may have a relatively low solubility in the second solventand still have a relatively high solubility in the first solvent andthus may be suitable for precipitation. Upon or after the particles orpharmaceutical compositions comprising the prodrug are administered to asubject, the prodrug may be converted and form or, in other words,“release,” the pharmaceutical agent. For example, FIG. 6 shows a typicaldrug release profile of inventive particles that comprise compoundI-A-1.

Precipitation by formation of a salt or complex may also be used to formparticles comprised predominantly of a salt or complex of apharmaceutical agent. In certain embodiments, the particles formed bythis specific precipitation technique comprise predominantly of apharmaceutical agent that is a nanocrystal. Generally, precipitation byformation of a salt or complex involves dissolving a pharmaceuticalagent that is to form the core in a solvent, in the presence or absenceof one or more excipients, followed by the addition of a counterion or acomplexing agent, which forms a salt or a complex with thepharmaceutical agent to form the core. All counterions described hereinare contemplated to be within the scope of the invention. This techniquemay be useful for preparing particles comprising pharmaceutical agentsthat have a relatively high solubility in the second solvent (e.g.,water or a coating solution). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceuticalagent has a relatively high solubility in the second solvent, and thesalt or complex of the pharmaceutical agent has a relatively lowsolubility in the second solvent. The relatively high solubility andrelatively low solubility are as described herein. In some embodiments,pharmaceutical agents having one or more charged or ionizable groupsinteract with a counterion (e.g., a cation or an anion) to form a saltor complex.

A variety of different acids may be used in a precipitation processinvolving formation of a salt or complex. Examples of acids suitable forprecipitation include deconoic acid, hexanoic acid, mucic acid, octanoicacid. In other embodiments, a suitable acid may include acetic acid,adipic acid, L-ascorbic acid, L-aspartic acid, capric acid (decanoicacid), carbonic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, galactaric acid,D-glucoheptonic acid, D-gluconic acid, D-glucuronic acid, glutamic acid,glutaric acid, glycerophosphoric acid, glycolic acid, hippuric acid,hydrochloric acid, DL-lactic acid, lauric acid, maleic acid, (−)-L-malicacid, palmitic acid, phosphoric acid, sebacic acid, stearic acid,succinic acid, sulfuric acid, (+)-L-tartaric acid, or thiocyanic acid.In other embodiments, a suitable acid may include alginic acid,benzenesulfonic acid, benzoic acid, (+)-camphoric acid, caprylic acid(octanoic acid), cyclamic acid, dodecylsulfuric acid,ethane-1,2-disulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid,2-hydroxy-, gentisic acid, glutaric acid, 2-oxo-, isobutyric acid,lactobionic acid, malonic acid, methanesulfonic acid,naphthalene-1,5-disulfonic acid, naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid,2-naphthoic acid, 1-hydroxy-, nicotinic acid, oleic acid, orotic acid,oxalic acid, pamoic acid, (embonic acid), propionic acid,(−)-L-pyroglutamic acid, or p-toluenesulfonic acid. In yet otherembodiments, a suitable acid may include acetic acid, 2,2-dichloro-,benzoic acid, 4-acetamido-, (+)-camphor-10-sulfonic acid, caproic acid(hexanoic acid), cinnamic acid, formic acid, hydrobromic acid,DL-mandelic acid, nitric acid, salicylic acid, salicylic acid, 4-amino-,and undecylenic acid (undec-10-enoic acid). Mixtures of two or moreacids can also be used.

A variety of different bases may also be used in a precipitation processinvolving formation of a salt or complex. Examples of bases suitable forprecipitation include ammonia, L-arginine, calcium hydroxide, choline,glucamine, N-methyl-, lysine, magnesium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,or sodium hydroxide. In other embodiments, a suitable base may includebenethamine, benzathine, betaine, deanol, diethylamine, ethanol,2-(diethylamino)-, hydrabamine, morpholine, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-,pyrrolidine, 1-(2-hyroxyethyl)-, or tromethamine. In other embodiments,a suitable base may include diethanolamine (2,2′-iminobis(ethanol)),ethanolamine (2-aminoethanol), ethylenediamine, 1H-imidazole,piperazine, triethanolamine (2,2′,2″-nitrilotris(ethanol)), and zinchydroxide. Mixtures of two or more bases can also be used.

Examples of solvents suitable for precipitation involving formation of asalt or complex include the solvents described herein that may be usedfor milling. In some embodiments, the first or second solvent suitablefor precipitation involving formation of a salt or complex is water, anaqueous solution (e.g., a buffered solution), an alcohol (e.g.,methanol, ethanol, propanol, or butanol), or a mixture thereof,optionally including one or more other components, such aspharmaceutical excipients, polymers, and pharmaceutical agents.

The first or second solvent suitable for precipitation may include oneor more surface-altering agents as described herein, and therefore, acoating comprising the one or more surface-altering agents may be formedaround the core to provide the coated particles of the invention as theyprecipitate out of solution. The one or more surface-altering agents maybe present in the first or second solvent at any suitable concentration,such as a concentration of at least about 0.001% (w/v), at least about0.003% (w/v), at least about 0.01% (w/v), at least about 0.03% (w/v), atleast about 0.1% (w/v), at least about 0.3% (w/v), at least about 1%(w/v), or at least about 3% (w/v). In some embodiments, the one or moresurface-altering agents are present in the first or second solvent at aconcentration of less than about 3% (w/v), less than about 1% (w/v),less than about 0.3% (w/v), less than about 0.1% (w/v), less than about0.05% (w/v), less than about 0.01% (w/v), or less than about 0.003%(w/v). Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible(e.g., a concentration of at least about 0.01 (w/v) and less than about1% (w/v). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, theone or more surface-altering agents are present in the first solvent butabsent in the second solvent. In certain embodiments, the one or moresurface-altering agents are present in the second solvent but absent inthe first solvent. In certain embodiments, the one or moresurface-altering agents are present in both the first and secondsolvents.

Another exemplary method of forming the core and/or coated particle is afreeze-drying process or technique known in the art. See, e.g., U.S.Patent Application No. 61/738,949.

Other methods of forming core particles are also possible. For example,additional techniques of forming the core and/or coated particlesinclude coacervation-phase separation, melt dispersion, interfacialdeposition, in situ polymerization, self-assembly of macromolecules(e.g., formation of polyelectrolyte complexes orpolyelectrolyte-surfactant complexes), spray-drying andspray-congealing, electro-spray, air suspension coating, pan and spraycoating, freeze-drying, air drying, vacuum drying, fluidized-bed drying,precipitation (e.g., nanoprecipitation, microprecipitation), criticalfluid extraction, and lithographic approaches (e.g., soft lithography,step and flash imprint lithography, interference lithography, andphotolithography). Combinations of the methods described herein are alsopossible. In some embodiments, a core of a pharmaceutical agent is firstformed by precipitation, and then the size of the core is reduced by amilling process, optionally a coating is form on the core by the millingprocess.

Following the formation of the core of the particles including apharmaceutical agent, the core may be optionally exposed to a solutioncomprising a (second) surface-altering agent that may associate withand/or coat the core. In embodiments in which the pharmaceutical agentalready includes a coating of a first surface-altering agent, all orpart of the first surface-altering agent may be exchanged with a secondsurface-altering agent. In some embodiments, the second surface-alteringagent renders the particle mucus penetrating more than the firstsurface-altering agent does. In some embodiments, a particle having acoating including multiple surface-altering agents is formed (e.g., in asingle layer or in multiple layers). In some embodiments, a particlehaving multiple coatings (e.g., each coating optionally comprisingdifferent surface-altering agents) may be formed. In some embodiments,the coating is in the form of a monolayer of a surface-altering agent.Other configurations are also possible.

In any of the methods described herein, a coating comprising asurface-altering agent may be formed on a core of the particles of theinvention by incubating the core in a solution including thesurface-altering agent for a period of at least about 1 minute, at leastabout 3 minutes, at least about 10 minutes, at least about 20 minutes,at least about 30 minutes, at least about 60 minutes, or more. In somecases, incubation may take place for a period of less than about 10hours, less than about 3 hours, or less than about 60 minutes.Combinations of the above referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., anincubation period of less than 60 minutes and at least about 1 minute).

Methods of Treatment, Uses, and Administration

In addition to compounds, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits, thepresent invention also provides methods of delivering a pharmaceuticalagent (e.g., a compound of the invention) to a subject. In certainembodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is delivered to a respiratorytract of the subject. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agentis delivered to a target tissue of the respiratory tract of the subject.

The pharmaceutical agent may be delivered as it is, in a plurality ofparticles of the invention, or in a pharmaceutical composition of theinvention, to the subject. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceuticalagent is inhalationally delivered to a respiratory tract of the subject.

As described herein, prior to the invention, it has been challenging todeliver a pharmaceutical agent to a subject to treat and/or prevent arespiratory tract disease. Conventional delivery methods (e.g., oral,intravenous, and intramuscular) are inefficient, invasive, and/orinconvenient. Inhalational administration has been difficult. When dosedas a solution (e.g., by nebulizer) the pharmaceutical agent willtypically be absorbed into systemic circulation, leaving limited localexposure in the lungs, which is the target tissue. In addition,conventionally formulated pharmaceutical agent delivered to the lungswill also be cleared due to the rapidly-clearing mucosal barrier (e.g.,mucus) in the respiratory tract. The pharmaceutical agent in traditionalpharmaceutical compositions often adheres to the mucus. Once immobilizedin the mucus, the pharmaceutical agent is often quickly removed from therespiratory tract with the mucus in forms like snot or phlegm. Thus, foran effective amount of the pharmaceutical agent to be inhalationallydelivered to the subject in conventional pharmaceutical compositions,high doses and/or frequent dosages may be used. However, high doses of apharmaceutical agent increase the risk of local and systemic sideeffects. Moreover, frequent administration is not desirable because ofits inconvenience to the subject, often resulting in poor compliance.Therefore, improving the mucus-penetration of the pharmaceutical agentby using appropriate pharmaceutical compositions, such as the inventiveparticles and pharmaceutical compositions of the invention, becomesadvantageous.

In certain embodiments, the inventive methods of delivering apharmaceutical agent involve inhalationally administering to a subjectthe inventive particles and/or pharmaceutical compositions that comprisea pharmaceutical agent. The particles or pharmaceutical compositionscomprising the same of the invention may be mucus-penetrating. Withoutwishing to be bound by any particular theory, the particles comprisingcompounds of Formula (I) of the invention may be capable of avoidingadhesion to the mucus in the respiratory tract, quickly penetrating(e.g., diffusing through) the mucus, prolonging the retention orduration of the pharmaceutical agent in the respiratory tract, and/orincreasing the local concentration of the pharmaceutical agent in therespiratory tract. The particles and/or pharmaceutical compositions maythen be dissolved in a bodily fluid (e.g., blood or plasma) of a targettissue (e.g., a lung, trachea, or bronchus) of the respiratory tract andmay release the pharmaceutical agent thereto. Therefore, thepharmaceutical agent is delivered to the target tissue of therespiratory tract. In contrast, none of the inhalable pharmaceuticalcompositions that have been marketed or are in late clinical development(e.g., TOBI®, CAYSTON®, TIP®, and ARIKACE®) benefit from the propertiesthat are unique to mucus-penetrating particles and pharmaceuticalcompositions comprising the same.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of increasing theduration time of a compound of Formula (I) in the respiratory tract of asubject comprising locally administering a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a plurality of particles comprising a core comprising acompound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate,hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, and isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof, and a coating of a surface altering agentsurrounding the core, wherein the surface altering agent is present onthe outer surface of the core at a density of at least 0.01 surfacealtering agent per nm², and optionally one or more pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipients. In a certain embodiment, the particles arenanoparticles. In another embodiment, the particles are nanocrystals. Inone embodiment, the composition is an inhalation solution locallyadministered by nebulizer. In another embodiment, the composition is aninhalable dry powder locally administered by dry powder inhaler.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of increasing theduration time of a compound of Formula (I-A-1) in the respiratory tractof a subject comprising locally administering a pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising a plurality of particles comprising a corecomprising a compound of Formula (I-A-1), or a pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer,stereoisomer, and isotopically labeled derivative thereof, and a coatingof a surface altering agent surrounding the core, wherein the surfacealtering agent is present on the outer surface of the core at a densityof at least 0.01 surface altering agent per nm², and optionally one ormore pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. In a certain embodiment,the particles are nanoparticles. In another embodiment, the particlesare nanocrystals. In one embodiment, the composition is an inhalationsolution locally administered by nebulizer. In another embodiment, thecomposition is an inhalable dry powder locally administered by drypowder inhaler.

In another aspect, the present invention provides methods of treatingand/or preventing a respiratory tract disease. In certain embodiments,the respiratory disease being treated and/or prevented by the inventivemethods is a respiratory tract disease described herein. Otherrespiratory tract diseases known in the art are also contemplated asbeing within the scope of the invention. The inventive compounds,particles, and/or pharmaceutical compositions may be administered to asubject by various routes, such as orally in any acceptable form (e.g.,tablet, liquid, capsule, powder, and the like), topically in anyacceptable form (e.g., patch, drops, creams, gels, nebulization, punctalplug, drug eluting contact, iontophoresis, and ointments), by injectionin any acceptable form (e.g., intravenous, intraperitoneal,intramuscular, subcutaneous, parenteral, and epidural), and by implantor the use of reservoirs (e.g., subcutaneous pump, intrathecal pump,suppository, biodegradable delivery system, non-biodegradable deliverysystem, and other implanted extended or slow release device orformulation). Preferably, the compounds, particles, and/orpharmaceutical compositions of the invention are inhalationallyadministered to the subject. The key benefits of inhalationaladministration may include non-invasive character, localized action withreduced systemic exposure, relative patient comfort, and ease ofadministration. Compliance of the subject is an issue which stems from awide variety of factors, from patients' difficulty remembering to takepills, to trouble in physically administering injections, and tounpleasant side effects. Other issues include rapid clearance of thepharmaceutical agent and systemic exposure. Inhalational administrationmay address all of these issues.

Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of increasing theexposure of a pharmaceutical agent in a tissue of a respiratory tract ofa subject.

Another aspect of the invention relates to methods of increasing theconcentration of a pharmaceutical agent in a tissue of a respiratorytract of a subject.

In certain embodiments, the methods of the invention includeadministering to a subject a compound, particle, and/or pharmaceuticalcomposition of the invention. In certain embodiments, the administrationof the compound, particle, and/or pharmaceutical composition of theinvention is an administration described herein. In certain embodiments,the administration is inhalational administration. In certainembodiments, an effective amount of the inventive compound, particle,and/or pharmaceutical composition is administered. In certainembodiments, the particle of the invention includes a pharmaceuticalagent. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition of theinvention includes a pharmaceutical agent.

In certain embodiments, the inventive compound, particle, andpharmaceutical composition are as described herein. In certainembodiments, the subject, pharmaceutical agent, effective amount,exposure, and concentration are as described herein.

The compounds, particles and/or pharmaceutical compositions of theinvention may be administered to a subject in various forms of doses.For example, the compounds, particles, and/or pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention may be administered in a single unit doseor repeatedly administered in a plurality of single unit doses. A unitdose is a discrete amount of the compounds, particles, and/orpharmaceutical compositions of the invention comprising a predeterminedamount of a pharmaceutical agent. In some embodiments, fewer numbers ofdoses (e.g., ½, ⅓, or ¼ the number doses) are required using theparticles of the invention having a mucus-penetrating coating comparedto particles that do not have such a coating.

The exact amount of the compounds, particles, and/or pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention required to achieve a therapeutically orprophylactically effective amount will vary from subject to subject,depending, for example, on species, age, and general condition of asubject, severity of the side effects or disorder, identity of theparticular compound, mode of administration, and the like. Thecompounds, particles, and/or pharmaceutical compositions of theinvention may be administered using repeated administrations where thereis a period of time between consecutive doses. Repeated administrationmay be advantageous because it may allow the respiratory tract to beexposed to a therapeutically or prophylactically effective amount of apharmaceutical agent for a period of time that is sufficiently long forthe respiratory tract disease to be treated and/or prevented. In certainembodiments, the period of time between consecutive doses is less thanabout 1 hour, less than about 2 hours, less than about 6 hours, lessthan about 12 hours, less than about 36 hours, or less than about 48hours. In certain embodiments, the period of time between consecutivedoses is at least about 1 hour, at least about 2 hours, at least about 6hours, at least about 12 hours, at least about 36 hours, or at leastabout 48 hours. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are alsopossible (e.g., a period of time between consecutive doses of greaterthan or equal to about 2 hours and less than about 12 hours). Otherranges are also possible.

Delivery of the compounds, particles and/or pharmaceutical compositionsof the invention to a subject may result in an efficacious level of apharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention) in a targettissue of a respiratory tract of the subject for an extended period oftime after administration. An efficacious level of a pharmaceuticalagent refers to an amount sufficient to elicit the desired biologicalresponse of the target tissue of the respiratory tract. As would beappreciated by those skilled in this art, the efficacious level of apharmaceutical agent may vary depending on such factors as the desiredbiological endpoint, the pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical agent,the respiratory tract disease being treated, the mode of administration,and the age and health of the subject. In certain embodiments, theefficacious level of a pharmaceutical agent is an amount of thepharmaceutical agent, alone or in combination with other therapies,which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of the respiratorydisease. The efficacious level of a pharmaceutical agent can encompass alevel that improves overall therapy, reduces or avoids symptoms orcauses of the respiratory tract disease, or enhances the therapeuticefficacy of another therapeutic agent.

In some embodiments, an efficacious pharmaceutical agent level may begauged, at least in part, by the maximum concentration (C_(max)) of thepharmaceutical agent in the target tissue after administration. In somecases, delivery of the compounds, particles, and/or pharmaceuticalcompositions comprising a pharmaceutical agent as described herein to antarget tissue of the respiratory tract may result in a higher C_(max) ofthe pharmaceutical agent in the target tissue of the respiratory tractafter administration, compared to marketed compounds, particles, andpharmaceutical compositions at similar doses. In certain embodiments,the C_(max) obtained from an administration of the compounds, particles,and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is at least about3%, at least about 10%, at least about 30%, at least about 100%, atleast about 300%, at least about 1000%, or at least about 3000%, higherthan the C_(max) obtained from an administration of the marketedcompounds, particles, and/or pharmaceutical compositions. In certainembodiments, the C_(max) obtained from an administration of thecompounds, particles, and/or pharmaceutical compositions of theinvention is less than about 3000%, less than about 1000%, less thanabout 300%, less than about 100%, less than about 30%, less than about10%, or less than about 3% higher than the C_(max) obtained from anadministration of the marketed compounds, particles, and/orpharmaceutical compositions. Combinations of the above-referenced rangesare also possible (e.g., an increase in C_(max) at least about 30% andless than about 300%). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the efficacious pharmaceutical agent levels aregauged, at least in part, by minimally efficacious concentrations of thepharmaceutical agent, e.g., IC₅₀ or IC₉₀, as known in the art.

In certain embodiments in which efficacious pharmaceutical agent levels(or C_(max), IC₅₀, or IC₉₀) are present in the target tissue of therespiratory tract for an extended period of time after administration,the extended period of time after administration can range from hours todays. In certain embodiments, the extended period of time afteradministration is at least 1 hour, at least 2 hours, at least 6 hours,at least 12 hours, at least 1 day, at least 2 days, at least 3 days, atleast 5 days, or at least 1 week. In certain embodiments, the extendedperiod of time after administration is less than 1 week, less than 5days, less than 3 days, less than 2 days, less than 1 day, less than 12hours, less than 6 hours, less than 2 hours, less than 1 hour.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., anextended period of time of at least about 4 hours and less than about 1week). Other ranges are also possible.

In certain embodiments, the compounds, particles, and/or pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention may be at dosage levels sufficient todeliver an effective amount of a pharmaceutical agent to a respiratorytract of a subject to obtain a desired therapeutic or prophylacticeffect. In certain embodiments, an effective amount of a pharmaceuticalagent that is delivered to a target tissue of the respiratory tract isat least about 10⁻³ ng/g, at least about 10⁻² ng/g, at least about 10⁻¹ng/g, at least about 1 ng/g, at least about 10¹ ng/g, at least about 10²ng/g, at least about 10³ ng/g, or at least about 10⁴ ng/g of tissueweight. In certain embodiments, an effective amount of a pharmaceuticalagent that is delivered to a target tissue of the respiratory tract isless than about 104 ng/g, less than about 103 ng/g, less than about 10²ng/g, less than about 10¹ ng/g, less than about 1 ng/g, less than about10⁻¹ ng/g, less than about 10⁻² ng/g, or less than about 10⁻³ ng/g oftissue weight. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are alsopossible (e.g., an effective amount of a pharmaceutical agent of atleast about 10⁻² ng/g and less than about 103 ng/g of tissue weight).Other ranges are also possible.

It will be appreciated that dose ranges as described herein provideguidance for the administration of provided compounds, particles, and/orpharmaceutical compositions to an adult. The amount to be administeredto, for example, a child or an adolescent can be determined by a medicalpractitioner or person skilled in the art and can be lower or the sameas that administered to an adult.

These and other aspects of the present invention will be furtherappreciated upon consideration of the following Examples, which areintended to illustrate certain particular embodiments of the inventionbut are not intended to limit its scope, as defined by the claims.

EXAMPLES

In order that the invention described herein may be more fullyunderstood, the following examples are set forth. The synthetic andbiological examples described in this application are offered toillustrate the compounds, pharmaceutical compositions, and methodsprovided herein and are not to be construed in any way as limiting theirscope.

Example 1. Preparation of the Compounds

The compounds provided herein can be prepared from readily availablestarting materials using the following general methods and procedures.See, e.g., Scheme 1 below. It will be appreciated that where typical orpreferred process conditions (i.e., reaction temperatures, times, moleratios of reactants, solvents, pressures, etc.) are given, other processconditions can also be used unless otherwise stated. Optimum reactionconditions may vary with the particular reactants or solvents used, butsuch conditions can be determined by those skilled in the art by routineoptimization procedures.

Additionally, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art,conventional protecting groups may be necessary to prevent certainfunctional groups from undergoing undesired reactions. The choice of asuitable protecting group for a particular functional group as well assuitable conditions for protection and deprotection are well known inthe art. For example, numerous protecting groups, and their introductionand removal, are described in Greene et al., Protecting Groups inOrganic Synthesis, Second Edition, Wiley, New York, 1991, and referencescited therein.

General processes for preparing compounds the invention, e.g., compoundI-A-1, are provided as further embodiments of the invention and areillustrated in Scheme 1.

Preparation of Chloromethyl Benzoate (5)

Sodium benzoate (4.8 g 33.3 mmol), sodium bicarbonate (8.4 g 100.0 mmol)and tetrabutylammonium sulfate (1.1 g, 3.3 mmol) were dissolved in water(70 mL).

Dichloromethane (70 mL) was added followed by chloromethylchlorosulfonate (4.2 mL, 40.3 mmol). The resulting mixture (a biphasicsolution) was vigorously stirred for 3 hours. The phases were separated.The organic phase was washed with water (2×50 mL) and dried overanhydrous magnesium sulfate. The solution was filtered through a smallplug of silica (5 g) and evaporated under reduced pressure at <30° C.yielding compound 5 as colorless liquid (5.2 g, 92%). The analyticaldata for compound 5 were identical to those reported in literature(e.g., Baudy et al., J. Med. Chem. 2009, 52, 771).

Preparation of Iodomethyl Benzoate (6)

Compound 6 was prepared by a modification of a literature procedure(Maury et al., Org. Lett. 2010, 12, 3590). Chloromethyl benzoate (2.7 g,15.9 mmol) was dissolved in acetone (20 mL). Sodium iodide (7.1 g, 47.6mmol) was added, and the resulting mixture was stirred for 3 hours at45° C., diluted with acetone (100 mL), filtered in the absence of light,and evaporated under reduced pressure at <30° C. The residue wasdissolved in diethyl ether (100 mL), washed with aqueous sodiumbicarbonate and aqueous sodium thiosulfate, dried over anhydrousmagnesium sulfate, and evaporated under reduced pressure at <30° C. inthe absence of light, yielding compound 6 as a yellow oil (3.3 g, 79%).The analytical data for compound 6 were identical to those reported inMaury et al., Org. Lett. 2010, 12, 3590. Compound 6 was used immediatelyin the subsequent step.

Preparation of (benzoyloxy)methyl-4-nitrophenyl Carbonate (7)

Iodomethyl-4-nitrophenyl carbonate (0.97 g, 3.0 mmol) was dissolved intoluene (20 mL). Benzoic acid (0.55 g, 4.5 mmol) and silver oxide (1.24g, 5.36 mmol) were added. The resulting mixture was heated at 80° C. for2 hours and filtered through silica pad with the aid of more toluene.Volatiles were evaporated under reduced pressure, yielding compound 7 asa yellow oil (0.89 g, 93%), which was used in the next reaction withoutfurther purification.

Preparation of (4R,5S,6S)-3-[[(3S,5S)-5-[(dimethylamino)carbonyl]-1-[[benzyloxymethoxy]carbonyl]-3-pyrrolidinyl]thio]-6-[(1R)-1-hydroxyethyl]-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylicAcid Benzyloxymethyl Ester (I-A-1)

Meropenem trihydrate (compound 1, 1.27 g, 2.90 mmol) was dissolved indimethylformamide (20 mL). (Benzoyloxy)methyl-4-nitrophenyl carbonate(compound 7, 0.92 g, 2.90 mmol) was added as a solution indimethylformamide (2 mL). The resulting mixture was stirred for 1 hour.Anhydrous sodium carbonate (0.62 g, 5.80 mmol) and iodomethyl benzoate(compound 6, 1.52 g, 5.80 mmol) were added. The reaction suspension wasstirred for 1 hour. Ethyl acetate (200 mL) was added. The resultingmixture was washed with water (50 mL), aqueous saturated sodiumbicarbonate (3×50 mL), and dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate.Volatiles were evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting residuewas dissolved in dichloromethane (100 mL) and evaporated under reducedpressure. The resulting thick oil was dissolved in minimal amount ofdichloromethane (about 5 mL) and poured into diethyl ether (200 mL) toprecipitate the product. The precipitated semi-solid was filtered anddissolved in a mixture of ethyl acetate and acetone (4:1, 20 mL). Theresulting solution was filtered through a silica pad (10 g) with the aidof additional solvent mixture (ethyl acetate and acetone (4:1)) asneeded. Complete elution was assessed by TLC (R_(f) 0.7, same solventsystem). Volatiles were evaporated under reduced pressure to yield ayellow solid (1.45 g), which was purified by preparative HPLC (ZORBAXCis, 50 mm×250 mm) running on a gradient from 50:50 to 10:90 H₂O(containing 0.1% formic acid)/ACN (containing 0.1% formic acid) in 10minutes at a flow rate of 118 mL/min. The relevant fractions wereneutralized with saturated NaHCO₃ solution (5 mL), and volatiles wereevaporated under reduced pressure. A cloudy suspension resulted and wasextracted with DCM. The layers were separated. The organic layer wasdried over anhydrous MgSO₄ and evaporated under reduced pressure todryness. The resulting residue was dried in vacuo to yield compoundI-A-1 as a white solid (280 mg, 14%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃): δ 8.04 (4H, m),7.55 (2H, m), 7.42 (4H, m), 6.12 (1H, d), 6.08 (1H, d), 6.02 (1H, d),5.89 (1H, d), 4.70 (1H, m), 4.21 (1H, m), 4.16 (1H, m), 4.09 (1H, m),3.62 (1H, m), 3.42 (1H, m), 3.36 (1H, m), 3.18 (1H, m), 3.08 (3H, s),3.02 (3H, s), 2.96 (3H, s), 2.81 (3H, s), 2.67 (1H, m), 1.88 (1H, m),1.28 (3H, d), 1.12 (3H, d) ppm. ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃): δ 172.95, 172.87,170.86, 170.65, 165.69, 165.63, 165.24, 159.65, 159.59, 152.65, 152.13,150.98, 150.64, 133.92, 133.86, 130.33, 130.30, 130.23, 129.27, 129.25,129.13, 128.75, 128.73, 128.71, 125.11, 125.04, 81.04, 80.42, 80.32,80.30, 66.15, 66.12, 60.23, 60.16, 56.57, 56.47, 56.28, 55.90, 54.82,54.46, 44.35, 40.95, 40.25, 37.25, 37.10, 36.40, 36.22, 35.93, 35.32,22.00, 21.96, 17.29 ppm. LC-MS: m z (M⁺) calculated 695.7, found 696.2.Compound I-A-1 crystallized from MeOH/H₂O (2:1, 5 mg/mL totalconcentration) or ethyl acetate/methyl t-butyl ether (1:1, 40 mg/mLtotal concentration) yielded crystals that were suitable for thepharmaceutical composition of the invention.

Example 2. Conversion of Compound I-A-1 to Meropenem

Compound I-A-1 was suspended in homogenized CF sputum (CFS) at aconcentration of 20 μg/mL (99.5:0.5 CFS/DMSO, 1.2 mL total volume) andincubated at 37° C. Aliquots (0.2 mL) taken after 0, 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 hof incubation were stored at −80° C. prior to bio-analytical processing.After a series of extractions in organic solvents, the resulting freemeropenem was quantified by tandem mass spectrometry (FIG. 5).

Example 3. Milling of Compound I-A-1

The following describes a non-limiting example of forming MPPs using acore comprising compound I-A-1. Coarse crystals of compound I-A-1 werenanomilled in an aqueous dispersion containing PLURONIC® F127 in thepresence of milling media until the average particle size of compoundI-A-1 was reduced to below 500 nm as measured by dynamic lightscattering (DLS). PLURONIC® F127 was used as a stabilizer that (1) aidedparticle size reduction to several hundreds of nanometers and (2)physically (i.e., non-covalently) coated the surface of generatednanoparticles with a mucoinert coating that would minimize particleinteractions with mucus constituents and prevent mucus adhesion. Thisprocess produced physically stable nanosuspensions of particles (FIG.3). In one experiment, the particles in the nanosuspensions had aZ-average particle diameter of 260 nm and polydispersity index of 0.109,as measured by DLS.

Example 4. Mobility of Compound I-A-1 in Mucus Measured by Dark-FieldMicroscopy

Fresh undiluted human cervicovaginal mucus (CVM) was contacted with theparticles of the invention, such as ones described in Example 3. Themobility of compound I-A-1 in CVM was characterized by dark-fieldmicroscopy using a CYTOVIVA® High Resolution Illumination System, whichallows visualization of fluorescent and non-fluorescent nano-sizedobjects. In one experiment, 0.5 μL of the nanosuspension was added to 20μL of undiluted CVM that was pre-deposited into a 20-μL well on amicroscope slide. Using a CCD camera, 15-s movies were captured at atemporal resolution of 66.7 ms (i.e., 15 frames/s) under 100×magnification from several randomly selected areas within each sample.Mobility of the particles in the movies was scored on a scale from 0 to3 in order of increasing mobility, in a single-blind experiment byindependent observers. The scoring criterion is as follows: 0-0.5immobile; 0.51-1.5 slightly mobile; 1.51-2.5 moderately mobile; and2.51-3.0 very mobile. The average mobility score for the particles was3.0, as calculated from 6 independent observations.

Example 5. Mobility of Compound I-A-1 in Mucus Measured by BulkTransport

The ability of the particles of the invention, such as ones described inExample 3, to penetrate mucus was measured via the mass transport of theparticles into a mucus sample. In this method, 20 μL of fresh undilutedhuman cervicovaginal mucus (CVM) was collected in a capillary tube, andone end of the capillary tube was sealed with clay. The open end of thecapillary tube was submerged in 20 μL of an aqueous suspension of theparticles where the concentration of compound I-A-1 was 0.5% w/v. Aftera desired time, typically 18 hours, the capillary tube was removed fromthe suspension, and the outside of the capillary tube was wiped clean.The capillary tube containing the mucus sample was placed in anultracentrifuge tube. Extraction media was added to the ultracentrifugetube, and the ultracentrifuge tube was incubated for 1 hour whilemixing, which removed the mucus from the capillary tube and extractedcompound I-A-1 from the mucus. The ultracentrifuge tube was spun toremove mucins and other non-soluble components. The amount of compoundI-A-1 in the extracted sample was quantified using HPLC (FIG. 4, thenegative control was uncoated 200 nm polystyrene (PS) spheres withcarboxylic acid groups on the surface. The positive control was the samePS spheres coated with PLURONIC® F127). The results were in goodagreement with those obtained by the dark-field microscopy method, suchas the one described in Example 4, showing clear differentiation intransport between mucus-penetrating particles (MPPs) and conventionalparticles (CPs).

Example 6. Preparation of MPPs Comprising Compound I-A-1 byNanoprecipitation

The following describes a non-limiting example of a method of preparingMPPs comprising compound I-A-1 by a nanoprecipitation process in thepresence of PLURONIC® F127. Polylactide (PLA), a biodegradablepharmaceutically relevant polymer was used as a material to form thecores of the particles via nanoprecipitation. PLURONIC® F127 acted as ananosuspension stabilizer and surface-altering agent forming coatingsaround the produced cores.

A solution of compound I-A-1 and PLA in a water-miscible organic solventcapable of dissolving both compound I-A-1 and PLA (e.g., acetone) wasadded into an aqueous solution of PLURONIC® F127 under mixing, resultingin the formation of a fine precipitate of nanoparticles containing bothcompound I-A-1 and PLA. In this process, the PLURONIC® (1) acted as ansurfactant that forms a stabilizing coating around the precipitatedorganic phase that, upon solidification, form the cores; and (2)physically (i.e., non-covalently) coated the surface of generatednanoparticles with a muco-inert coating that would lead to rapidparticle penetration in mucus.

A typical nanoprecipitation process is as follows: an acetone solution(about 1 ML) containing 10-20 mg/mL of compound I-A-1 and 5 mg/ml of PLA(polylactide grade 100DL7A, purchased from SURMODICS) was added understirring at a rate of 0.5 mL/min into an aqueous solution of PLURONIC®F127 (about 40 mL, 5 wt %). The resulting nanosuspension was allowed toequilibrate overnight at room temperature to evaporate the volatiles andcrystallize out unencapsulated compound I-A-1. The nanosuspension wasfiltered through 1 micron glass fiber filters to remove any agglomeratesand/or crystals of unencapsulated compound I-A-1. The filtrate wascentrifuged to sediment the nanoparticles. The obtained sediment wasseparated from the supernatant and washed by resuspending in an aqueoussolution containing 0.5 wt % PLURONIC® F127. Thissedimentation-resuspension procedure was repeated to ensure removal ofunencapsulated compound I-A-1. The final product was freeze-dried forstorage.

Example 7. Preparation of Compounds 8-19

General processes for preparing compounds the invention, e.g., compounds12-19, are provided as further embodiments of the invention and areillustrated in Scheme 2.

TABLE 3 Description of R¹ and R² in Compounds I-A-1 and 12-19 CompoundR^(A) R^(C) I-A-1

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Preparation of (alkyloxy)methyl-4-nitrophenyl and(aryloxy)methyl-4-nitrophenyl Carbonates (8)

Iodomethyl-4-nitrophenyl carbonate (1 equiv) and(alkyloxy)methyl-4-nitrophenyl or (aryloxy)methyl-4-nitrophenylcarbonate 8 (1 equiv) were dissolved in solvent. Solid Ag₂O (1 equiv)was added in a single portion and the reaction stirred at roomtemperature. Slurry was filtered through CELITE and the solventevaporated. Resulting product residue was used directly in the nextreaction.

Preparation of Carbamate Derivatives of Meropenem (9)

Meropenem trihydrate (1 equiv) and the appropriate activated carbonateof formula 8 (1 equiv) were dissolved in anhydrous DMF and stirred atroom temperature. The reaction solution was used directly in the nextstep.

Preparation of Iodomethyl Benzoate Derivatives and IodomethylAlkylcarboxylate Derivatives (10)

Compounds of formula 10 were prepared as reported by Harada, N., et al.Synth. Comm. 1994, 24, 767, using the appropriate carboxylic acid.

Preparation of Meropenem Prodrugs (11)

The appropriate iodomethyl derivative of 10 (2 equiv) and solid Na₂CO₃(2 equiv) were added to the solution of meropenem carbamate 9 andstirred at room temperature. Solution was diluted with water, thenextracted three times with ethyl acetate. Combined extracts were driedover MgSO₄, filtered, and the solvent evaporated. Product residues werepurified first by flash chromatography, then by preparative HPLC.Analytical data for Compounds 12-19 are set forth below.

Compound 12: (4R,5S,6S)-(butyryloxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-1-(((benzoyloxy)methoxy)carbonyl)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, m/z: 662 (M+1). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 0.92 (dd, J=7.5, 7.5 Hz, 3H); 1.21 (dd,J=2.0, 7.5 Hz, 3H); 1.29 (d, J=6.5 Hz, 3H); 1.60 (m, 2H); 1.85-1.93 (m,1H); 2.31 (dd, J=7.0, 7.0 Hz, 2H); 2.61-2.78 (m, 2H); 2.82 (s, 1.5H);2.97 (s, 1.5H); 3.04 (s, 1.5H); 3.09 (s, 1.5H); 3.17-3.20 (m, 1H);3.32-3.45 (m, 2H); 3.58-3.66 (m, 1H), 4.05-4.24 (m, 3H); 4.68-4.75 (m,1H); 5.81 (dd, J=1.0, 6.0 Hz, 1H); 5.87-5.91 (m, 2.5H); 6.02 (d, J=6.5Hz, 0.5H); 7.43 (dd, J=7.5, 7.5 Hz, 2H); 7.57 (dd, J=7.5, 7.5 Hz, 1H);8.01-8.07 (m, 2H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 13.48; 17.00; 17.02; 17.97; 21.70; 21.74; 26.90;34.97; 35.62; 35.68; 35.92; 36.10; 36.81; 36.96; 39.94; 40.62; 44.02;49.37; 54.23; 54.56; 55.59; 55.96; 56.18; 56.27; 59.87; 59.94; 65.89;65.92; 72.74; 79.39; 80.11; 80.72; 124.89; 124.92; 128.44; 128.95;128.97; 129.93; 130.01; 133.62; 149.94; 150.26; 151.82; 152.34; 159.21;159.27; 165.33; 165.38; 170.32; 170.53; 172.03; 172.47; 172.55.

Compound 13: (4R,5S,6S)-(benzoyloxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-1-(((butyryloxy)methoxy)carbonyl)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, Spectral data given for the mixture of rotamers. ¹H-NMR(CDCl₃): δ 0.92 (dd, J=7.0, 7.0 Hz, 3H), 1.22 (dd, J=7.0, 9.0 Hz, 3H);1.30 (dd, J=6.0, 6.0 Hz, 3H); 1.58-1.66 (m, 2H); 1.86-1.94 (m, 1H);2.27-2.35 (m, 2H); 2.58-2.86 (m, 2H); 2.92 (s, 1.5H); 2.95 (s, 1.5H);3.03 (s, 1.5H); 3.07 (s, 1.5H); 3.17 (m, 1H); 3.32-3.42 (m, 2H);3.58-3.67 (m, 1H); 3.99-4.13 (m, 1H); 4.15-4.24 (m, 2H); 4.69 (ddd,J=8.0, 8.0, 25.5 Hz, 1H); 5.60-5.66 (m, 1.5H); 5.77 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 0.5H);6.11 (ddd, J=2.0, 6.0, 14.0 Hz, 2H); 7.40-7.45 (m, 2H); 7.53-7.58 (m,1H); 8.03-8.06 (m, 2H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 13.47; 13.50; 17.00; 17.92; 17.99; 21.69; 21.76;35.08; 35.67; 35.74; 35.76; 35.96; 36.09; 36.80; 36.96; 39.97; 40.79;44.06; 44.12; 54.09; 54.51; 55.60; 55.89; 56.17; 56.26; 59.86; 59.91;65.84; 65.88; 80.01; 79.37; 80.02; 80.21; 124.79; 124.95; 128.41;128.83; 130.03; 133.57; 150.23; 150.60; 151.89; 152.37; 159.27; 159.34;164.93; 170.32; 170.49; 172.45; 172.52; 172.54; 172.55.

Compound 14: (4R,5S,6S)-(benzoyloxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-1-((((cyclobutanecarbonyl)oxy)methoxy)carbonyl)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, m/z: 674 (M+1). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 1.19-1.23 (m, 3H); 1.30 (dd, J=6.5, 6.5 Hz,3H); 1.83-1.99 (m, 3H); 2.14-2.32 (m, 4H); 2.64-2.70 (m, 1H); 2.92 (s,1.5H); 2.95 (s, 1.5H); 3.04 (s, 1.5H); 3.07 (s, 1.5H); 3.11-3.22 (m,2H); 3.32-3.43 (m, 2H); 3.59-3.67 (m, 1H); 3.99-4.12 (m, 1H); 4.15-4.25(m, 2H); 4.69 (ddd, J=8.5, 8.5, 23.0 Hz, 1H); 5.61-5.66 (m, 1.5H); 5.76(d, J=5.5 Hz, 0.5H); 6.11 (ddd, J=2.0, 5.5, 19.0 Hz, 2H), 7.40-7.45 (m,2H); 7.58 (m, 1H); 8.02-8.07 (m, 2H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 17.00; 18.23; 18.24; 21.67; 21.73; 24.87; 24.92;24.95; 25.01; 35.09; 35.69; 35.98; 36.11; 36.83; 36.97; 37.58; 37.63;39.99; 40.78; 44.07; 44.13; 54.07; 54.48; 55.58; 55.90; 56.18; 56.26;59.85; 59.91; 65.85; 65.89; 76.73; 76.99; 77.25; 79.49; 80.01; 80.39;124.78; 124.92; 128.41; 128.83; 130.02; 133.56; 150.28; 150.62; 151.88;152.39; 159.27; 159.33; 164.94; 170.38; 170.53; 172.56; 172.59; 174.26;174.29.

Compound 15: (4R,5S,6S)-(butyryloxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-1-((((cyclobutanecarbonyl)oxy)methoxy)carbonyl)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, m/z: 640 (M+1). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): S 0.93 (dd, J=7.0, 7.0 Hz, 3H), 1.24 (dd,J=7.5, 7.5 Hz, 3H); 1.32 (dd, J=6.0, 6.0 Hz, 3H); 1.61-1.68 (m, 2H);1.84-2.00 (m, 3H); 2.15-2.31 (m, 4H); 2.34 (dd, J=6.5, 6.5 Hz, 3H);2.65-2.71 (m, 1H); 2.93 (s, 1.5H); 2.96 (s, 1.5H); 3.05 (s, 1.5H); 3.09(s, 1.5H); 3.13-3.23 (m, 2H); 3.33-3.42 (m, 2H); 3.58-3.67 (m, 1H); 4.07(ddd, J=7.0, 11.0; 42.5 Hz, 1H); 4.17-4.25 (m, 2H); 4.7 (ddd, J=8.0,8.0; 23.0 Hz, 1H); 5.62-5.67 (m, 1.5H); 5.77 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 0.5H); 5.83(d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H); 5.90 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 13.46; 17.03; 17.98; 18.25; 18.28; 21.73; 21.78;24.90; 24.94; 24.97; 25.04; 35.08; 35.69; 35.98; 36.11; 36.84; 36.99;37.61; 37.66; 40.01; 40.77; 44.06; 44.11; 54.15; 54.54; 55.57; 55.88;56.20; 56.26; 59.88; 59.94; 65.90; 65.97; 79.40; 79.41; 79.50; 80.39;124.96; 125.05; 149.95; 150.23; 151.90; 152.40; 159.22; 159.27; 170.36;170.50; 172.06; 172.49; 174.28; 174.30.

Compound 16: (4R,5S,6S)-((4-fluorobenzoyl)oxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)-1-((((4-fluorobenzoyl)oxy)methoxy)carbonyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, m/z: 732 (M+1). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 1.21 (dd, J=3.0, 6.6 Hz, 3H); 1.29 (dd,J=3.0, 6.6 Hz, 3H); 1.85-1.93 (m, 1H); 2.64-2.71 (m, 1.5H); 2.78-2.83(m, 0.5H); 2.81 (s, 1.5H); 2.97 (s, 1.5H); 3.03 (s, 1.5H); 3.08 (s,1.5H); 3.17-3.21 (m, 2H); 3.32-3.45 (m, 2H); 3.58-3.67 (m, 1H);4.03-4.25 (m, 2H); 4.71 (ddd, J=8.5, 8.5, 21.5 Hz, 1H); 5.87-5.91 (m,1.5H); 5.90 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 0.5H); 6.06 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H); 6.11 (d, J=5.5Hz, 1H); 7.06-7.14 (m, 4H); 8.02-8.10 (m, 4H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 17.01; 21.72; 21.78; 26.91; 35.01; 35.62; 35.91;36.11; 36.79; 36.95; 39.96; 40.68; 44.05; 49.37; 54.18; 54.56; 55.64;55.99; 56.18; 56.23; 59.89; 59.96; 55.99; 65.82; 65.90; 72.77; 80.01;80.09; 80.75; 115.55; 115.59; 115.67; 115.73; 115.77; 124.87; 124.91;125.10; 125.13; 125.21; 125.23; 125.26; 125.28; 132.55; 132.64; 132.67;132.71; 132.74; 150.19; 150.47; 151.83; 152.32; 159.24; 159.29; 163.95;164.35; 164.44; 165.07; 167.10; 170.29; 170.33; 170.44; 172.55; 172.60;172.63.

Compound 17: (4R,5S,6S)-((4-chlorobenzoyl)oxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-1-((((4-chlorobenzoyl)oxy)methoxy)carbonyl)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, m/z: 764 (M). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 1.20 (dd, J=6.5, 6.5 Hz, 3H); 1.27 (dd,J=6.5, 6.5 Hz, 3H); 1.83-1.92 (m, 1H); 2.64-2.71 (m, 2H); 2.81 (s,1.5H); 2.96 (s, 1.5H); 3.02 (s, 1.5H); 3.08 (s, 1.5H); 3.16-3.19 (m,1H); 3.32-3.44 (m, 2H); 3.58-3.66 (m, 1H); 4.03-4.24 (m, 3H); 4.71 (ddd,J=7.5, 7.5, 22.0 Hz, 1H); 5.86-5.89 (m, 1.5H); 5.98 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 0.5H);6.04 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H); 6.11 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H); 7.37-7.41 (m, 4H);7.95-7.98 (m, 4H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 16.99; 21.65; 21.72; 34.95; 35.55; 35.90; 36.09;36.76; 36.93; 39.86; 40.60; 44.01; 54.18; 54.56; 55.65; 55.99; 56.13;56.20; 59.89; 59.94; 65.73; 65.78; 80.01; 80.03; 80.13; 80.79; 124.7;124.77; 127.27; 127.36; 127.43; 128.76; 128.79; 131.28; 131.36; 131.39;140.03; 140.08; 140.10; 150.31; 150.61; 151.77; 152.25; 159.18; 159.24;164.07; 164.46; 164.54; 170.27; 170.43; 172.62; 172.68.

Compound 18: (4R,5S,6S)-((3-fluorobenzoyl)oxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)-1-((((3-fluorobenzoyl)oxy)methoxy)carbonyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

White solid, m/z: 732 (M+1). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 1.21 (dd, J=7.0 Hz, 3H); 1.28 (dd, J=2.0,6.0 Hz, 3H); 1.28-1.95 (m, 1H); 2.65-2.71 (m, 1H); 2.84 (s, 1.5H); 2.97(s, 1.5H); 3.04 (s, 1.5H); 3.10 (s, 1.5H); 3.18 (ddd, J=2.0, 7.0, 7.0Hz, 1H); 3.33-3.46 (m, 2H); 3.60-3.68 (m, 1H); 4.04-4.24 (m, 3H); 4.72(ddd, J=8.0, 8.0, 21.5 Hz, 1H); 5.86-5.89 (m, 2H); 6.01 (d, J=5.5 Hz,1H); 6.07 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H); 6.12 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H); 7.23-7.29 (m, 2H);7.38-7.44 (m, 2H); 7.69-7.73 (m, 2H); 7.82-7.86 (m, 2H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 17.02; 21.68; 21.74; 35.01; 35.60; 35.94; 36.11;36.12; 36.79; 36.95; 39.93; 40.67; 44.07; 54.18; 54.56; 55.69; 56.01;56.16; 56.26; 59.89; 59.95; 65.81; 65.85; 80.12; 80.26; 80.90; 116.65;116.73; 116.76; 116.83; 116.89; 116.91; 116.92; 116.95; 120.58; 120.61;120.75; 120.78; 124.70; 124.77; 125.70; 125.72; 125.76; 125.80; 125.82;130.10; 130.14; 130.16; 130.20; 130.95; 131.01; 131.08; 131.13; 131.18;150.43; 150.75; 151.75; 152.24; 159.19; 159.25; 161.41; 161.44; 163.38;163.40; 163.82; 163.85; 164.20; 164.29; 164.30; 164.31; 170.28; 170.31;170.44; 172.56; 172.62; 172.65.

Compound 19: (4R,5S,6S)-((3-chlorobenzoyl)oxy)methyl3-(((3S,5S)-1-((((3-chlorobenzoyl)oxy)methoxy)carbonyl)-5-(dimethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)thio)-6-((R)-1-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-7-oxo-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-ene-2-carboxylate

Pale yellow solid, m/z: 764 (M). Spectral data given for the mixture ofrotamers. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 1.11 (dd, J=7.0, 7.0 Hz, 3H); 1.18 (dd,J=2.0, 6.0 Hz, 3H); 1.75-1.84 (m, 1H); 2.44-2.65 (m, 2H); 2.75 (s,1.5H); 2.87 (s, 1.5H); 2.94 (s, 1.5H); 2.99 (s, 1.5H); 3.08 (ddd, J=2.5,8.0, 8.0 Hz, 1H); 3.23-3.36 (m, 2H); 3.50-3.56 (m, 1H); 3.95-4.14 (m,3H); 4.62 (ddd, J=8.0, 8.0, 23.0 Hz, 1H); 5.76-5.79 (m, 1.5H); 5.91 (d,J=6.0 Hz, 0.5H); 5.98 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 1H); 6.00 (d, J=5.0 Hz, 1H);7.22-7.29 (m, 2H); 7.41-7.45 (m, 2H); 7.80-7.84 (m, 2H); 7.88-7.91 (m,2H).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃): δ 17.02; 21.69; 21.77; 35.00; 35.60; 35.96; 36.11;36.80; 36.95; 39.92; 40.67; 44.07; 54.19; 54.57; 55.69; 56.01; 56.16;56.24; 59.88; 59.93; 65.82; 65.86; 80.09; 80.28; 80.89; 124.69; 124.75;128.07; 128.1; 128.17; 129.78; 129.81; 129.86; 129.94; 129.97; 130.59;130.71; 130.77; 133.57; 133.60; 134.52; 134.57; 150.44; 150.74; 151.72;152.22; 159.17; 159.24; 163.76; 164.15; 164.23; 170.24; 170.41; 172.48;172.56.

Example 8. Pharmacokinetic Data of Meropenem after Dosing of I-A-1 inGuinea Pigs

Guinea pigs were chosen to evaluate the concentrations of meropenem inthe lung. The intra-tracheal (IT) route was selected in order tomaximize exposure to the conducting airways, which is the intendedtarget for humans. Dose selection was calculated using Aztreonam, aclosely related β-lactam antibiotic and the only approved inhaledantibiotic, as a comparator. An Aztreonam human dose of 75 mg thricedaily (225 mg/day), or 3.75 mg/kg each day (assuming a 60-kg human),equates to a weight-adjusted dose of 1.6 mg meropenem for a 425-gramguinea pig. The dose of Compound I-A-1 (meropenem prodrug), 2.9 mg peranimal, was reached using a 0.55× factor to account for the differencein molecular weight. Animals were given a single dose of either 8.0mg/mL solution of meropenem (free parent) or 14.5 mg/mL suspension ofCompound I-A-1 formulated as an MPP in accordance with Example 3(equivalent to 8.0 mg/mL of meropenem) using an IT microsprayer. Thedose volume was 0.2 mL per animal. At the designated time points (0.083,0.25, 0.5, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 h), lungs were removed, snapped frozen andhomogenized for bio-analytical analysis of meropenem and pro-drug. Three(3) animals were tested per group per time point. The drugconcentrations were determined by tandem mass spectrometry.

FIG. 7 shows the pharmacokinetic profiles after IT dosing of CompoundI-A-1 MPP of the present invention and meropenem, and levels ofmeropenem after dosing with Compound I-A-1, a meropenem prodrug, MPP.

The results of this study in guinea pigs demonstrate lung meropenemlevels resulting from administration of Compound I-A-1 MPP, formulatedas a plurality of particles coated with a surface altering agent asdescribe in Example 3, were sustained over time, and had enhancedduration in guinea pig lung compared with meropenem from a solution offree meropenem.

EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE

In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or morethan one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from thecontext. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or moremembers of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, orall of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwiserelevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contraryor otherwise evident from the context. The invention includesembodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in,employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. Theinvention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of thegroup members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to agiven product or process.

Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, andpermutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, anddescriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introducedinto another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on anotherclaim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in anyother claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements arepresented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of theelements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from thegroup. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention,or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particularelements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention oraspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, suchelements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodimentshave not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is alsonoted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to beopen and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Whereranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwiseindicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of oneof ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges canassume any specific value or sub-range within the stated ranges indifferent embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of thelower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

This application refers to various issued patents, published patentapplications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which areincorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any ofthe incorporated references and the instant specification, thespecification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment ofthe present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitlyexcluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodimentsare deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may beexcluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Anyparticular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim,for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using nomore than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specificembodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodimentsdescribed herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description,but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinaryskill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modificationsto this description may be made without departing from the spirit orscope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound of Formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof; wherein: ---- is a single bond or null;

is a single or double bond; R^(A) is substituted or unsubstitutedaliphatic, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted orunsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; R^(B) is—C(═O)—N(Me)₂, —CH₂—NH—S(═O)₂—NH₂,

 ═NH, or

R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted orunsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, orsubstituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; R^(F) is hydrogen or methyl;and provided that when R^(A) is an unsubstituted C₄ aliphatic, thenR^(C) is an unsubstituted C₆-C₁₂ aliphatic, a substituted aliphatic,substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstitutedaryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl
 2. The compound ofclaim 1, wherein R^(A) is substituted or unsubstituted, 6- to14-membered aryl.
 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein R^(A) issubstituted phenyl.
 4. The compound of claim 1, wherein R^(A) isunsubstituted phenyl.
 5. The compound of claim 1, wherein R^(A) issubstituted or unsubstituted alkyl.
 6. The compound of claim 1, whereinR^(A) is substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.
 7. The compound of claim 1, whereinR^(A) is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.
 8. The compound of claim 1, whereinR^(A) is substituted 3- to 7-membered, monocyclic carbocyclyl.
 9. Thecompound of claim 1, wherein R^(A) is unsubstituted 3- to 7-membered,monocyclic carbocyclyl.
 10. The compound of claim 1, wherein R^(C) issubstituted or unsubstituted, 6- to 14-membered aryl.
 11. The compoundof claim 1, wherein R^(C) is substituted phenyl.
 12. The compound ofclaim 1, wherein R^(C) is unsubstituted phenyl.
 13. The compound ofclaim 1, wherein R^(C) is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl.
 14. Thecompound of claim 1, wherein R^(C) is substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.
 15. Thecompound of claim 1, wherein R^(C) is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.
 16. Thecompound of claim 1, wherein R^(C) is substituted 3- to 7-membered,monocyclic carbocyclyl.
 17. The compound of claim 1, wherein R^(C) isunsubstituted 3- to 7-membered, monocyclic carbocyclyl.
 18. The compoundof claim 1, wherein the compound is of Formula (I-A):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.
 19. A compound of Formula (I-A-1):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.
 20. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of Formula(I-B):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.
 21. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of Formula(I-C):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.
 22. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of Formula(I-D):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof.
 23. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of anyone of claims 1-22, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate,hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient.
 24. A pharmaceutical composition comprising: a plurality ofparticles comprising: a core comprising a compound of any one of claims1-22, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate,polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeledderivative thereof, and a coating of a surface altering agentsurrounding the core, wherein the surface altering agent is a triblockcopolymer of the structure: (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobicblock)-(hydrophilic block), wherein the surface altering agent ispresent on the outer surface of the core at a density of at least 0.01surface altering agent per nm²; and optionally a pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipient.
 25. A pharmaceutical composition comprising: aplurality of particles comprising: a core comprising a compound of anyone of claims 1-22, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate,hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof, and a coating of a surface altering agentsurrounding the core, wherein the surface altering agent is a asynthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of thepolymer, the polymer having a molecular weight of at least about 1 kDaand less than or equal to about 1000 kDa, and wherein the polymer is atleast about 30% hydrolyzed and less than about 95% hydrolyzed, whereinthe surface altering agent is present on the outer surface of the coreat a density of at least 0.01 surface altering agent per nm²; andoptionally a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.
 26. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the average sizeof the core ranges from about 50 nm to about 1 μm.
 27. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 2, wherein the average size ofthe coated particle ranges from about 50 nm to about 1 μm.
 28. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the averagesmallest cross-sectional dimension of the plurality of coated particlesranges from about 50 nm to about 1 μm.
 29. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the polydispersity index of thecores and/or coated particles is less than about 0.2, less than about0.15, less than about 0.1, or less than about 0.05.
 30. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the compound, orthe pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, constitutes at least about50 wt %, at least about 60 wt %, at least about 70 wt %, at least about80 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at leastabout 99 wt % of the core.
 31. The pharmaceutical composition of claim24 or 25, wherein the aqueous solubility of the compound, or thepharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is less than 1 mg/mL, lessthan 0.1 mg/mL, or less than 0.01 mg/mL at 25° C.
 32. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the surface altering agent ispresent in the pharmaceutical composition in an amount of between about0.05 wt % and about 5 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition.
 33. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the surfacealtering agent is covalently attached to the core.
 34. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the surfacealtering agent is non-covalently adsorbed to the core.
 35. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein the surfacealtering agent is present on the outer surface of the core at a densityof at least about 0.01, at least about 0.03, at least about 0.1, atleast about 0.3, at least about 1, at least about 3, at least about 10,or at least about 30 surface altering agents per nm².
 36. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 25, wherein the polymer comprisespendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the triblock copolymer. 37.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24, wherein at least onehydrophilic block of the triblock copolymer comprises poly(ethyleneglycol).
 38. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24, wherein thehydrophobic block of the triblock copolymer is poly(propylene oxide).39. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24, wherein the triblockcopolymer is poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethyleneglycol).
 40. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 25, wherein thepolymer is at least about 40% hydrolyzed, at least about 50% hydrolyzed,at least about 60% hydrolyzed, at least about 70% hydrolyzed, at leastabout 80% hydrolyzed, or at least about 90% hydrolyzed.
 41. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 25, wherein the polymer is less thanabout 95%, less than about 90%, or less than about 80% hydrolyzed. 42.The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24, wherein the two hydrophilicblocks of the triblock copolymer constitute at least about 20 wt %, atleast about 30 wt %, at least about 40 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, orat least about 60 wt % of the triblock polymer, and/or less than about80 wt % of the triblock copolymer.
 43. The pharmaceutical composition ofclaim 24, wherein the molecular weight of each block of the triblockcopolymer is independently at least about 1.8 kDa, at least about 2 kDa,at least about 2.5 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at least about 4 kDa, orat least about 5 kDa.
 44. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24,wherein the molecular weight of the hydrophobic block of the triblockcopolymer is at least about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at least about4 kDa, or at least about 6 kDa, and/or less than about 20 kDa, less thanabout 10 kDa, or less than about 8 kDa.
 45. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 24, wherein the molecular weight of the triblockcopolymer is at least about 2 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about10 kDa, at least about 20 kDa, at least about 50 kDa, at least about 80kDa, at least about 100 kDa, or at least about 120 kDa.
 46. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 24, wherein the molecular weight ofthe triblock copolymer is less than about 200 kDa, less than about 180kDa, less than about 150 kDa, less than about 130 kDa, less than about100 kDa, less than about 80 kDa, less than about 50 kDa, or less thanabout 30 kDa.
 47. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24, wherein:the molecular weight of the hydrophobic block is at least about 2 kDa;and the two hydrophilic blocks constitute at least about 15 wt % of thetriblock copolymer.
 48. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24,wherein the triblock copolymer is a poloxamer.
 49. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 24, wherein the triblock copolymer is PLURONIC®F127.
 50. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or 25, wherein thecompound, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate,polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeledderivative thereof, is encapsulated in a polymer, a lipid, a protein, ora combination thereof.
 51. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24 or25 further comprising a pharmaceutical agent selected from the groupconsisting of antifungal agents, antiprotozoan agents, anti-bacterialagents, anti-viral agents, anti-inflammatory agents, anti-proliferativeagents, and pain-relieving agents.
 52. The pharmaceutical composition ofclaim 24 or 25, wherein the pharmaceutical composition is suitable forinhalational administration to a subject.
 53. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 52, wherein pharmaceutical composition is fortreating a respiratory tract disease.
 54. The pharmaceutical compositionof claim 52, wherein the subject is a human.
 55. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 53, wherein the respiratory tract disease is arespiratory tract infection.
 56. The pharmaceutical composition of claim55, wherein the respiratory tract infection is bronchitis or pneumonia.57. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 55, wherein the respiratorytract infection is caused by a Pseudomonas species.
 58. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 55, wherein the respiratory tractinfection is caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
 59. The pharmaceuticalcomposition of claim 53, wherein the respiratory tract disease is cysticfibrosis.
 60. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 53, wherein thecoating on the core is present in a sufficient amount to increase theexposure of the compound, or the pharmaceutically acceptable saltthereof, by at least 10% when administered in the pharmaceuticalcomposition compared to the exposure of the compound, or thepharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof, when administered as a core without the coating.
 61. Thepharmaceutical composition of claim 53, wherein the coating on the coreis present in a sufficient amount to increase the concentration of thecompound by at least 10% in the subject when administered in thepharmaceutical composition, compared to the concentration of thecompound in the subject when administered as a core without the coating.62. A kit comprising: a compound of any one of claims 1-22, or apharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph,co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivativethereof, or a pharmaceutical composition of any one of claims 23-61; andinstructions for administering the compound, the pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer,stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivative thereof, or thepharmaceutical composition.
 63. A method of treating a respiratory tractdisease in a subject in need thereof comprising: inhalationallyadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of acompound of any one of claims 1-22, or a pharmaceutically acceptablesalt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer,or isotopically labeled derivative thereof, or a pharmaceuticalcomposition of any one of claims 23-61.
 64. The method of claim 63,wherein the step of administering comprises administering one or moredoses comprising independently at least about 0.003 mg, at least about0.01 mg, at least about 0.03 mg, at least about 0.1 mg, at least about0.3 mg, at least about 1 mg, at least about 3 mg, at least about 10 mg,or at least about 30 mg of the compound, or the pharmaceuticalacceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer,stereoisomer, or isotopically labeled derivative thereof, per kg of bodyweight of the subject.
 65. The method of claim 63 or 64, wherein thestep of administering comprises administering two or more doses, whereinthe time period between consecutive doses is at least about 6 hours, atleast about 8 hours, at least about 12 hours, at least about 36 hours,or at least about 48 hours.
 66. The method of claim 63, furthercomprising sustaining an efficacious level of the compound, or an activemetabolite thereof, in the subject for at least 12 hours afteradministration.
 67. The method of claim 63, wherein the subject is ahuman.
 68. The method of claim 63, wherein the respiratory tract diseaseis a respiratory tract infection.
 69. The method of claim 68, whereinthe respiratory tract infection is bronchitis or pneumonia.
 70. Themethod of claim 68, wherein the respiratory tract infection is caused bya Pseudomonas species.
 71. The method of claim 68, wherein therespiratory tract infection is caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
 72. Themethod of claim 63, wherein the respiratory tract disease is cysticfibrosis.
 73. The method of claim 63, wherein the coating on the core ispresent in a sufficient amount to increase the exposure of the compound,or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, by at least 10% whenadministered in the pharmaceutical composition compared to the exposureof the compound, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate,hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, or isotopicallylabeled derivative thereof, when administered as a core without thecoating.
 74. The method of claim 63, wherein the coating on the core ispresent in a sufficient amount to increase the concentration of thecompound by at least 10% in the subject when administered in thepharmaceutical composition, compared to the concentration of thecompound in the subject when administered as a core without the coating.